DEPARTMENT  OF 


CHAMPAIGN,  ILLINOIS 


BOOKS  ABE  NOT  TO  BE  TAKEN  FROM  THE  LIBRARY  ROOM. 


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library 

AN  ACCOUNT  OP 


Various  Experiments 


FOR  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  NEW  AND  DESIRABLE 


GRAPES, 

*  AND  A  DESCRIPTION  OP 

FORTY  VARIETIES 


OBTAINED  BY 


HYBRIDIZATION. 


33  Y 

GEORGE  HASKELL. 


IPSWICH,  MASS.: 
1877. 


. 


- 


■ 


EXPERIMENTS. 


In  offering  these  vines  for  sale,  it  may  be  interesting  to  grape- 
growers  to  know  the  various  methods  and  labors  by  which  I  have 
sought  to  obtain  new  varieties :  it  may  also  be  a  caution  and 
great  help  to  others  engaged  in  similar  efforts,  to  know  of  the 
many  failures  and  meagre  success  of  such  labors. 

The  aim  of  all  my  efforts  has  been  to  obtain  vines  which  would 
bear  our  winters,  be  free  from  mildew  and  other  disease  in  summer, 
and  bear  good  fruit  which  would  ripen  in  this  section.  These  ef¬ 
forts  commenced  many  j'ears  ago,  under  these  circumstances  : — On 
reading  the  Treatise  of  Mr.  Prince  on  the  Yine,  soon  after  it  ap¬ 
peared,  in  1830, 1  got  interested  in  the  subject  and  determined  I 
would  have  a  vineyard.  In  the  ardor  and  greenness  of  youth,  I 
bought  two  hundred  Isabella  vines  of  J.  B.  Russell,  who  then  kept 
an  agricultural  store  in  Boston,  and  two  thousand  cuttings  of  the 
same  kind  of  Mr.  Samuel  Pond,  of  Cambridge.  These  were  plant¬ 
ed  and  tended  with  care  and  expectation  for  several  years,  but  I 
never  obtained  a  drop  of  wine  or  a  peck  of  ripe  fruit  from  the 
whole  of  them. 

Finding  the  Isabella  would  not  succeed  in  our  climate,  I  began 
the  search  for  a  good  native,  in  the  swamps  and  woods  of  this 
region.  Whenever  I  heard  of  a  wild  vine  bearing  fruit  called  good, 
I  invariably  visited  it,  and  I  have  travelled  many  miles,  and  for 
several  years,  through  the  swamps,  woods,  and  morasses  of  this 
section,  in  quest  of  a  grape  worth  cultivating.  Some,  of  course, 
were  better  than  others,  and  all  that  were  better  or  earlier  than  the 
general  run,  were  removed  to  my  own  grounds;  but  they  did  not 
improve,  or  were  hardly  as  good,  when  grown  in  the  warm,  dry 
soil  of  a  garden. 

I  then  began  to  plant  the  seeds  of  these  best  natives,  and  contin¬ 
ued  to  do  so  for  three  generations  of  vines,  without  obtaining,  out 
of  many  thousands  thus  raised,  a  single  fruit  that  I  regarded  worth 
propagating,  and  only  a  few  of  them  have  been  preserved  ;  but  the 
earliest  and  best  of  native  vines,  thus  obtained,  have  been  used  in 
crossing  with  the  foreign. 

Simultaneously  with  these  efforts,  I  raised  many  hundred  vines 
from  seeds  of  different  foreign  grapes.  These  seeds  were  planted 


<bc5 \o 


4 


under  glass,  and  the  vines  remained  in  the  house  two  years,  when 
they  were  removed  to  the  open  air.  iNTone  of  them  proved  healthy 
or  would  bear  our  winters.  Some  of  them  lived  to  bear  fruit  for  a 
year  or  two,  but  they  all  died  in  a  few  years,  though  well  covered 
every  winter. 

I  then  sought  to  obtain  better  fruit  by  grafting  the  native  upon 
the  foreign,  and  planting  the  seed  of  the  native,  thus  grown  upon 
the  foreign  root;  but  I  could  not  discover  any  improvement  in  the 
fruit  of  the  seedlings  grown  from  such  seed.  I  also  sought  to  ob¬ 
tain  hardihood  of  vine,  by  grafting  the  foreign  upon  the  native 
and  planting  the  seed  of  the  foreign  thus  grown  upon  the  native 
root;  but  the  vines  of  such  seedlings  proved  no  hardier  than  seed¬ 
lings  from  a  foreign,  ungrafted  vine.  In  neither  case  did  the  stock 
appear  to  have  any  influence  upon  the  character  or  fruit  of  the 
vines  grown  from  seed  of  the  graft,  nor  were  such  vines  different 
from  seedlings  of  the  same  species,  when  grown  from  seed  of  un¬ 
grafted  vines. 

I  then  tried  to  modify  the  fruit  of  seedlings  through  the  agency 
of  the  foliage,  and  as  soon  as  the  fruit  was  formed  on  each  species 
I  inarched  the  new  shoot  of  the  other  species  into  the  shoot  bear¬ 
ing  the  cluster  just  above  the  fruit.  When  the  union  of  the  shoots 
was  complete,  in  about  two  weeks,  I  cut  out  the  shoot  proper  to  the 
fruit  at  the  point  of  union  and  took  off  all  the  foliage  on  that  shoot 
below  the  cluster:  thus  leaving  the  fruit  with  no  foliage  but  that  of 
the  other  species  to  nourish  and  mature  it.  White  grapes  were 
thus  grown  under  the  foliage  of  black  grapes,  and  black  under  the 
foliage  of  white,  and  each  retained  its  proper  color,  though  the  tex¬ 
ture  and  quality  of  the  fruit  seemed  to  be  changed  by  the  alien  fo¬ 
liage.  The  foliage  of  the  foreign  was  thus  placed  over  the  fruit  of 
the  native,  and  the  foliage  of  the  native  over  the  fruit  of  the  foreign. 

The  seeds  of  fruits  thus  grown,  were  planted  for  several  years, 
but  the  result  was  a  great  disappointment.  I  did  not  find  such  a 
decided  effect  as  I  expected.  The  vines  from  the  seed  of  foreign 
fruit,  thus  grown,  were  not  so  hardy  or  healthy  as  I  desired,  nor 
was  the  fruit  of  native  seedlings,  thus  grown,  good  enough  to  be 
propagated.  Perhaps  the  latter,  had  they  been  tried  a  few  years 
longer,  might  have  improved,  and  farther  south  the  former  might 
have  grown  successfully;  but,  unfortunately,  none  have  been  pre¬ 
served  for  such  further  trial. 

My  next  method  of  seeking  for  the  desired  fruit  was,  by  inarch¬ 
ing  the  new  shoot  of  the  foreign  upon  the  native,  and  of  the  native 
upon  the  foreign,  as  soon  as  the  fruit  was  formed,  both  below  and 


5 


above  the  section  of  the  cane  bearing  the  cluster;  and  as  soon  as  the 
union  was  complete,  the  cane  bearing  the  cluster  was  severed  from 
its  own  root  and  deprived  of  all  its  leaves;  thus  having  the  fruit  of 
each  species,  with  about  three  inches  of  its  cane,  grown  and  ma¬ 
tured  upon  the  root  and  under  the  foliage  of  the  other  species.  I 
hoped  some  of  the  seed,  thus  grown,  would  produce  vines  possess¬ 
ing  the  desired  qualities.  (A  full  and  more  particular  account  of 
this  process  was  published  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1SG3.)  After  laboring  for  years  in  this  method,  the  vines  thus 
obtained  were  abandoned  as  worthless.  I  now  see  the  folly  of  my 
impatience  in  rooting  them  up  after  trying  their  fruit  for  only  one 
or  two  years.  Indeed,  I  should  now  regard  vines,  thus  obtained, 
as  of  the  highest  interest,  affording,  as  they  would,  some  evidence 
of  the  influence  of  an  alien  root  and  leaf  upon  the  offspring  of  seed 
thus  matured.  A  few  of  the  vines,  thus  obtained,  were  grafted 
near  the  ground,  and  I  am  trying  to  start  shoots  from  the  roots,  to 
restore  the  original  vine  to  view. 

Thus  baffled  again,  in  my  efforts  to  obtain  the  desired  fruit,  I 
began  to  cross-fertilize  the  flowers,  foreign  with  the  native  and  the 
native  with  the  foreign,  using  many  varieties  of  each  species,  of 
different  sizes,  colors  and  flavors  in  the  fruit,  and  having  differences 
in  the  form  and  other  characteristics  of  foliage 

This  method  has  been  pursued  for  fifteen  years,  and  more  than 
eighty  different  crosses  have  been  effected,  counting  the  second 
crosses,  between  the  half-bloods,  and  of  the  half-blood  back  upon 
the  original  species.  During  the  last  ten  years  these  crosses  have 
not  been  made  at  random,  but  vines  possessing  some  desired  qual¬ 
ities,  have  been  selected  for  union  with  other  vines  possessing  other 
desired  qualities,  in  the  hope  of  uniting  all  such  qualities  in  one 
fruit  and  vine.  More  than  a  thousand  seedlings  have  been  thus 
produced;  several  of  them  have  borne  fruit  for  eight  or  ten  years, 
many  of  them  for  three  to  five  years,  and  a  few  have  never  fruited, 
though  not,  organically,  infertile.  A  docket  has  been  kept  of  all 
these  crosses,  and  of  each  vine  thus  produced,  in  which  is  noted  its 
parentage,  and  habits  of  vine  and  qualities  of  fruit,  during  its 
whole  existence. 

The  varieties  now  offered  were  thus  obtained,  registered  and 
tried,  and  their  qualities,  as  thus  ascertained  in  this  unfavorable 
part  of  the  country,  are  correctly  stated. 

In  selecting  the  fruit  that  appeared  worthy  of  propagation,  I 
have  not  preserved  the  vine  when  the  fruit  retained  too  much  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  native  parent.  If  it  was  too  sour,  too  hard  in 


6 


pulp,  too  small  or  too  foxy,  or  if  the  cluster  was  small,  or  much 
broken,  or  irregular  in  form,  or  if  the  fruit  shook  easily  from  the 
stem  when  ripe,  I  have  thrown  the  vine  away.  Since  then,  I  have 
seen  so  much  improvement  in  the  fruit  and  cluster,  after  the  vine 
had  seme-  fruit  for  a  few  years,  that  I  regret  my  conduct  in  this  re¬ 
spect  very  much.  I  think  some  of  those  destroyed  would  have  out¬ 
grown  the  defects  for  which  I  condemned  them,  and  might  have 
proved  to  be  some  of  the  best. 

In  selecting  them  for  hardihood,  I  have  left  them  for  the  winter 
to  kill  and  weed  out  those  constitutionally  too  tender  to  survive  it; 
as  I  have  never  laid  them  down  or  covered  them,  even  in  this  se¬ 
vere  climate.  In  selecting  them  for  healthiness,  I  have  discarded 
and  thrown  out  ail  those  generally  affected  with  mildew,  and  those 
occasionally  affected  with  it  so  much  as  to  prevent  the  ripening  of 
the  fruit.  Some  of  the  best  fruits,  however,  have  been  retained, 
though  the  vine  is  occasionally,  and  to  some  extent,  subject  to  its 
attack,  as  they  may  be  entirely  free  from  it  in  a  dryer  atmosphere, 
or  farther  from  the  sea-coast.  In  selecting  them  for  early  maturity, 
I  have  not  condemned  them  altogether,  because  they  failed  occa¬ 
sionally  to  ripen  here,  if  they  possessed  other  required  merits.  Sev¬ 
eral  such  have  been  ripened  under  glass  in  a  cold-house,  audit  then 
appeared  that,  with  a  summer  a  few  weeks  longer,  or  more  steadily 
warm  than  ours,  they  were  surpassed  by  few  of  the  foreign  grapes 
in  size,  beauty  or  flavor  ;  notably  was  this  true  of  Three,  Three- 
Twenty-Five,  Three-Eighty-Seven,  and  Four-Twenty. 

I  have  thus  briefly  stated  the  different  methods  by  which  I  have 
tried  to  obtain  the  desired  grape,  and  some  of  the  repeated  and  di¬ 
versified  experiments  made  for  that  purpose.  These  experiments 
have  been  carried  on  more  than  forty  years — not  a  year  having 
passed  during  that  long  period,  in  which  I  have  not  obtained  and 
planted  the  seeds  of  native  and  foreign  fruit,  modified,  lately,  I  had 
hoped,  by  the  artificial  use  of  nature’s  processes.  This  effort  has 
not  been  omitted  even  when  I  was  busy  with  professional  cares 
and  occasionally  charged  with  official  duties,  nor  on  account  of  any 
trouble  or  expense  to  which  I  might  thereby  be  subjected.  The 
result  has  been  very  interesting,  and  partially  successful ;  but  how 
far  successful,  can  only  be  determined  by  a  full  and  thorough  trial 
in  other  sections  of  the  country,  better  adapted  than  this  to  the 
cultivation  of  this  valuable  fruit. 

I  am  sorry  the  success  has  not  been  more  obvious  and  decided  ; 
but,  thinking  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  any  other  individual  will 
be  so  unwise  as  to  spend  his  money,  time  and  thought  in  such  ef- 


rr 

4 


forts,  or  will  do  so  with  a  better  chance  of  success,  I  have  conclu¬ 
ded  to  offer  to  the  public  the  fruits  of  these  labors,  such  as  they  are* 
I  had  hoped  to  obtain  a  reimbursement  of  my  money-outlay  in  this 
matter,  but  see  no  chance  for  even  that.  The  nurserymen  will  not 
buy  the  stock  of  any  of  them,  or  even  take  them  to  propagate,  un¬ 
til  there  is  a  call  for  them — and  there  will  not  be  a  call  for  them 
until  they  arc  general^  known  ;  and  if  distributed  so  as  to  be 
generally  known,  the  originator  is  minus  the  whole  undertaking. 
Whether  I  obtain  any  pecuniary  recompense  for  the  products  of 
these  labors,  may  be  a  question  of  justice;  but  it  is  not  by  any 
means  a  matter  of  necessity  with  me.  I  hope  the  fruits  obtained 
will  be  a  benefit  to  the  public,  and  that  the  future  will  show  them 
to  be  of  great  value  to  the  country,  in  both  an  economic  and  com¬ 
mercial  aspect. 

I  shall  exercise  the  right  of  an  author  in  giving  them  names,  and 
shall  preserve  the  numerical  names  now  affixed  to  them.  Such 
names  are  perfctly  distinctive,  are  easily  remembered,  and  can  be 
briefly  expressed  in  figures  upon  a  plan,  tag  or  order. 

It  may  be  objected  that  I  am  sending  out  too  many  varieties, — 
that  it  will  confuse  and  perplex  purchasers.  But  this  distribution 
of  varieties  is  onl}'  tentative;  not  that  it  can  be  desirable  to  propa¬ 
gate  and  multiply  largely  so  many  varieties  in  any  locality.  These 
have  been  selected,  after  years  of  trial  from  more  than  a  thousand 
seedlings,  of  different  crosses,  and  every  one  was  selected  because 
it  possessed,  when  grown  here,  more  than  one  desirable  quality  of 
vine  or  fruit.  How  they  will  thrive  in  other  localities  can  only  be 
known  by  trial ;  and  it  is  to  obtain  such  trial,  and  the  selection  of 
the  best  for  each  section  that  so  many  are  offered.  I  also  desire  to 
have  so  many  of  these  seedlings  taken  for  trial  in  other  sections, 
because  I  do  not  believe  we  shall  ever  obtain  a  variety  that  will  be 
the  best  and  most  valuable  in  all  sections.  No  such  single  variety 
is  known  in  Europe,  where  the  differences  in  soil  and  climate  are 
less  than  in  this  country,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  such 
a  variety  here.  Another  advantage  of  this  distribution  of  many 
kinds  will  be,  that  seedlings  of  these  hybrids  will  be  obtained  in 
other  sections  from  a  greater  variety,  in  parentage,  and  with  a  bet¬ 
ter  chance  of  finding  among  them  vines  adapted  to  those  sections, 
and,  quite  likely,  bearing  better  fruits  than  those  yielding  the  seed. 

Again  : — no  one  variety  will  suit  all  palates  best,  cither  as  fruit 
or  for  wine.  In  submitting  these  fruits  to  the  most  experienced 
and  competent  judges  of  grapes,  I  have  been  surprised  at  their  di¬ 
versity  of  taste  and  choice.  They  would  all  agree,  generally,  upon 


8 


the  best  ten  or  twenty  ;  but  if  asked  to  designate  the  best  two,  or 
three,  or  five,  they  would  differ  widely,  each  having  a  preference 
for  the  flavor,  texture,  or  comparative  sweetness  of  a  particular  and 
different' grape.  Of  course,  to  meet  these  different  tastes,  it  is  well 
to  have  a  number  of  varieties  of  differing  qualities  propagated  and 
tried.  It  might  be  supposed,  from  the  similarity  in  many  of  the 
descriptions  given,  that  the  fruits  were  much  alike.  But  it  will  be 
found  that  those  much  alike  inform,  color  and  other  characteristics 
which  can  be  stated  in  language,  are  yet  quite  different  in  flavor, 
taste  and  relish. 

Another  reason  for  the  trial  of  so  many  kinds,  is  the  hope  that 
some  of  them,  if  planted  in  a  soil  suited  to  their  native  parent,  will 
be  safe  from  the  attack  of  the  Phylloxera.  It  will  be  observed,  that 
most  of  the  vines  described,  are- from  crosses  with  what  is  popular¬ 
ly  called  the  Pox  grape — but  accurately  it  is  the  Biparia — a  species 
which  is  found  generally,  in  a  wild  state,  only  In  swamps  and  on 
the  banks  of  streams.  The  Vulpina  and  Labrusca  are  only  other 
names  for  varieties  of  the  same  species,  and  they  do  not  accurately 
describe  any  species,  as  the  pungency  on  the  lips  and  the  fox  odor, 
are  not  uniformly  found  in  the  fruit  of  either  of  them. 

Recent  experiments  in  Prance  have  shown  that  the  most  effectual 
eradication  of  the  Phylloxera  was  by  flooding  the  ground,  and  thus 
drowning  the  insects.  As  the  Biparia  of  this  country  flourishes, 
and  really  does  best  in  wet  bogs  and  meadows,  even  when  the  roots 
are  immersed  in  water  all  winter  and  the  soil  is  saturated  all  sum¬ 
mer,  may  we  not  expect  that  this  trait  will  prevail  in  some  of 
these  hybrids  and  make  them  almost  proof  against  the  Phylloxera, 
especially  if  planted  in  such  wet  soils  ?  I  shall  place  them  in  such 
soils  and  localities,  and  hope  others  will  do  so  too,  that  the  experi¬ 
ment  may  be  fairly  tried. 

The  belief  that  these  grapes  are  worthy  of  distribution  and  trial, 
is  strengthened  by  the  judgment  of  many  competent  persons  to 
whom  I  have  sent  the  fruit.  These  opinions  of  others,  however, 
have  been  formed  and  expressed,  from  an  inspection  and  trial  of 
the  fruit  only,  and  without  any  knowledge  of,  or  reference  to,  the 
qualities  of  the  vine,  except,  perhaps,  from  a  general  knowledge 
such  persons  may  have  of  the  ungenial  part  of  the  country  in  which 
the  vines  have  been  raised  and  fruited. 

The  following  are  the  opinions  of  some  of  the  gentlemen  to 
whom  the  fruit  has  been  sent. 

In  October,  1869,  I  sent  several  varieties  to  Marshall  P.  "Wilder, 
which  he,  in  company  with  Robert  Manning,  examined  and  made 
notes  of  as  follows  : — 


0 


295.  “  Sweet  to  the  skin;  pulp  rather  tender,  vinous,  sprightly; 
color  dull.amber  reddish;  a  considerable  improvement  on  the  native.” 

300.  “Same  color,  similar  constituents,  but  leaving  a  rough, 
astringent  taste  at  the  skin.” 

509.  “  Like  300,  but  acidity  in  place  of  roughness.  ” 

325.  “  Smaller  bunch  and  berry,  sweeter,  rather  hard  pulp, 
sweet  and  rich.” 

3S7.  “  Larger  bunch;  color  dark  and  dingy;  hard  pulp;  sprightly 
and  good;  winy.” 

12G.  “  Dark  amber;  the  ripest  ones  chestnut  color;  appears  to 
have  passed  its  maturity.” 

334.  “  Sweet  and  tolerably  rich,  but  pretty  foxy,  leaving  consid¬ 
erable  astringency  in  the  mouth.” 

339.  “  Apparently  later,  not  so  well  colored,  but  having  a  Cataw¬ 
ba  smack.” 

340.  “  Berry  largest  and  most  foxy  of  all ;  chestnut  color  ;  a 
slight  remove  from  the  native.” 

The  next  year,  at  the  request  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Garber,  of  Columbia, 
Pa.,  I  sent  eighteen  varieties  to  him,  which,  in  company  with  three 
gentlemen  of  that  neighborhood,  he  examined,  and  they  sent  me 
a  detailed  report  of  their  opinion  of  them.  I  suppose  they  fur¬ 
nished  the  following  account  of  them,  which  I  find  in  the  “  Lan¬ 
caster  Farmer,”  November,  1870: — 

“  Then  we  have  received  a  box  containing  eighteen  varieties,  all 
hybrids,  from  Mr.  G.  Haskell,  of  Massachusetts.  These  are  all 
new,  none  of  them  yet  out  of  the  hands  of  the  originator.  Some 
of  them  were  somewhat  damaged  by  being  delayed  on  the  way. 
We,  in  company  with  several  other  grapists,  on  testing  and  tasting 
these  new  grapes,  fully  agreed  that  they  were  very  promising. 
Should  these  varieties,  or  some  of  them  at  least,  improve  by  being 
grown  in  our  latitude,  or  still  further  south,  as  the  Concord  is  known 
to  have  improved,  then  these  new  ones  are  certainly  worth  looking 
.after.  Mr.  Ilaskell  is  a  persevering  experimenter,  having  already 
in  1809  fruited  between  six  and  seven  hundred  seedlings,  of  which 
he  has  selected  twenty  of  the  best  for  further  trial,  and  has  over 
two  hundred  fruiting  for  the  first  time  this  last  season.  These 
many  varieties  are  the  product  of  more  than  thirty  crosses,  and  he 
is  still  continuing  his  experiments.  Of  course,  among  so  many 
there  will  be  a  large  portion  that  will  probably  be  no  improvement 
on  older  sorts  ;  yet  lie  can  hardly  fail  of  producing  some  very  su¬ 
perior  varieties.” 

Three  years  later,  in  1873,  1  sent  nine  varieties  to  the  editors  of 
the  “  Country  Gentleman,”  and  their  opinion  of  them  was  stated 
in  that  paper  for  October  23d,  as  follows  : — 

“  The  grapes  came  in  fair  order — a  little  the  worse  for  time  and 
transportation,  but  so  that  we  were  able  to  judge  well  of  their  qual¬ 
ity.  The  collection  consists  of  nine  seedlings,  but  as  we  are  not 


10 


told  from  what  varieties  they  are  crossed,  we  are  unable  to  judge 
how  successful  the  experiments  have  been  by  way  of  improvement 
on  the  parents.  On  comparing  the  flavor  with  the  Concord,  we 
find  at  least  two-thirds  of  better  flavor,  with  a  strong  tendency  to¬ 
wards  sweetness.  Nos.  3G,  74,  325,  371  and  387  are  quite  sweet, 
and  of  very  fair  quality,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  so  imperfect  a 
trial.  The  others  are  not  so  good,  and  one  or  two  rather  poor.  Of 
the  growth,  hardiness  or  productiveness  of  the  vines,  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing.  We  have  thus  given  our  opinion,  as  these 
grapes  appear  to  us — an  opinion  liable  of  course  to  revision  on  a 
better  opportunity  for  judging.” 

In  1874,  I  sent  six  varieties  to  the  editors  of  “  Colman’s  Rural 
World,”  in  St.  Louis,  and  in  that  publication  for  November  14, 
1874,  the  following  statement  is  made  in  regard  to  them  : — 

7  0  O 

“  The  grapes  came  to  hand  in  good  condition,  showing  that  our 
correspondent  knows  how  to  pack  such  things.  No.  371,  bunch 
small,  berry  medium,  round,  dark  red  ;  thin  skin,  small  seeds,  but 
plenty  of  them  ;  pulp  soft,  sweet  and  pleasant. 

No.  325,  Large  bunch,  shouldered  ;  berry  oval,  a  little  above  me¬ 
dium  in  size  ;  thin  skin,  melting  pulp  ;  very  rich  and  sweet. 

No.  387,  Bunch  medium  ;  berry  do,  slightly  oval;  thin  skin,  soft  ’ 
pulp,  sweet,  spicy  and  rich  in  flavor  ;  pale  red  in  color. 

No.  36,  Bunch  and  berry  medium  ;  round,  dark  red  ;  first-rate. 

No.  295,  Bunch  medium  ;  berry  a  little  above  round;  pale  green¬ 
ish  red  ;  skin  thin;  pulp  dissolving,  sweet  and  pleasant;  very  good, 
we  would  call  it. 

No.  74,  Bunch  medium  ;  berry  large,  oval,  black,  with  a  fine 
bloom  upon  it  after  travelling  fifteen  hundred  miles  ;  skin  thin  ; 
pulp  soft  and  melting,  sweet  and  aromatic  ;  most  valuable  of  the 
lot,  in  our  opinion.  There  is  a  touch  of  Black  Hamburg  in  this  last 
that  pleased  us  very  much.  If  these  grapes  improve  when  grown 
here,  as  usual,  we  look  for  some  valuable  additions  when  they  are 
set  out.  We  should  like  a  few  grapes  of  each  to  try  them,  and  will 
most  likely  be  able  to  report  by  the  fall  of  1876. 

All  the  Rogers’  hybrids  are  so  much  improved  in  size  of  bunch 
and  in  quality,  when  grown  here,  that  they  would  hardly  be  taken 
for  the  same  variety.  This  we  would  expect  of  Mr.  Haskell’s  grapes 
also.” 

A  number  of  varieties  were  sent  that  same  year  to  the  editor  of 
the  iL  Massachusetts  Ploughman,”  and  he  commented  upon  them 
in  that  paper  as  follows  : — 

“We  acknowledge  with  pleasure  the  receipt  of  a  variety  of  seed¬ 
ling  grapes  from  George  Haskell,  Esq.,  of  Ipswich.  Some  of  them 
were  of  excellent  quality  and  worth  propagating.  No.  74  was  espe¬ 
cially  fine  it  seemed  to  us,  though  it  was  perhaps  fresher  and  more 
in  its  best  condition  as  to  ripeness.  Some  of  the  samples  were  a 
little  over  ripe.” 

The  same  season  they  were  sent  to  Mr.  Meehan,  of  the  “  Gar¬ 
dener’s  Monthly,”  and  he  expressed  his  opinion  thus,  in  Nov.,  1874: 

u  Grape  Seedlings  from  Mr.  Geo.  Haskell,  Ipswich,  Mass. 


i 


11 


These  arc  some  of  the  best  we  have  seen,  and  when  the  high  north¬ 
ern  latitude  is  considered,  show  how  marked  has  been  grape  im¬ 
provement  of  late  years.  There  are  among  them  black,  white  and 
red  bunches  ;  and  some  of  the  bunches  of  considerable  size.” 

Another  parcel  was  sent  to  the  editors  of  the  “  Country  Gentle¬ 
man,”  and  in  that  paper  for  November  5, 1874,  they  are  described 
as  follows  : — 

“Nos.  74  and  118  are  black  grapes,  of  very  tender  skin,  little 
pulp,  and  sweet  and  good  flavor.  The  first  named  appears  to  be  an 
excellent  grape.  But  none  are  large  and  showy  enough  to  produce 
‘a  sensation.’  Nos.  295  and  387  are  light  brown,  quite  sweet,  and 
hardly  so  good  as  the  black  ones.” 

In  the  same  year,  1874,  seven  varieties  were  sent  to  Wm.  Saun¬ 
ders,  Superintendent  of  the  Government  Experimental  Grounds, 
at  Washington,  and  he  sent  me  the  following  report  upon  them, 
which  he  consents  to  have  me  publish.  In  consenting  to  have  me 
publish  this  report,  however,  he  adds: — “  I  have  long  ago  learned 
that  no  one  can  tell  anything  about  the  general  value  of  a  grape 
by  simply  testing  a  bunch  of  its  fruit ;  and  that  opinions  formed 
upon  such  slight  acquaintance  are  of  little  value.”  His  report  of 
the  fruits  was  as  follows  : — 

No.  325.  “  A  very  fine  flavored  grape,  and  very  large,  fine  look¬ 
ing  bunch.” 

o 

No.  36.  “  Bunch  of  fair  size  ;  berries  spicy  in  flavor;  drops  read¬ 

ily  from  the  bunch.” 

No.  74.  “  As  fine  looking  as  a  Black  Hamburgh,  and  about  as 
good  in  flavor  ;  really  a  splendid  acquisition.” 

No.  387.  “  This  is,  to  my  notion,  the  best,  and  most  delicately 
flavored  grape  of  the  number  ;  a  superior  table  fruit.” 

No.  371.  “  The  smallest  of  the  lot,  both  in  bunch  and  berry,  and 
not  conspicuously  good.” 

No.  118.  “  A  very  pleasant  grape,  somewhat  tart  ;  perhaps  not 
quite  as  ripe  as  it  might  be.” 

No.  295.  “  Very  like  325  in  flavor  ;  bunch  not  so  large,  but  good 
size  notwithstanding.” 

“  These  six  grapes  are,  perhaps,  finer  than  any  six  named  hardy 
grapes  that  arc  now  in  cultivation.” 

The  next  year,  1875,  six  varieties  were  sent  to  Marshall  P.  Wilder, 
and  he  made  the  following  notes  upon  them,  which  I  am  permitted 
to  use  : — 

No.  74.  Black  ;  berries  large,  oval  ;  thick  bloom;  juicy,  sweet, 
sprightly  ;  pulp  tender ;  seeds  large  ;  one  of  the  best  natives  we 
have  ever  tasted.” 

No.  420.  Black,  medium  size,  slightly  oval ;  skin  thick,  thick 
bloom;  pulp  firm;  rich,  vinous,  sprightly;  holds  on  well;  very  good.” 

No.  118.  “  Black,  round,  thick  hloom  ;  skin  not  so  thick  as  last 
and  seeds  larger;  otherwise  much  the  same.” 


12 


Iso  3G.  “  Resembles  the  Catawba  in  many  respects,  with  thicker 
bloom,  and  holds  on  well.” 

No.  387.  u  Chestnut  color  ;  thin  bloom,  round,  medium  size  ; 
thin  skin;  pulp  rather  tough,  very  sweet  and  rich;  adheres  strongly.” 

No.  325.  Color  like  the  last,  with  dots  like  the  wild  type  ;  me¬ 
dium  size  ;  thin  bloom;  sweet;  juicy;  pulp  rather  tender;  seeds 
small;  sprightly;  vinous  near  the  skin  with  foxy  aroma.” 

“  On  the  whole,  this  lot  impresses  us  much  more  favorably  than 
on  former  occasions,  showing  the  influence  of  hybridization  in 
breeding  out  the  native  aroma,  while  yet  more  may  be  done  in  the 
way  of  producing  pulp  more  tender.” 

Mr.  Wilder  submitted  these  varieties  to  the  examination  of  the 
Fruit  Committee  of  the  American  Pomological  Society  for  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  and  they  report  thereon  (page  119)  as  follows: — 

u  Mr.  George  Haskell,  of  Ipswich,  has  for  several  years  been  en¬ 
gaged  in  hybridizing  the  grape,  and  has  produced  a  large  number  of 
varieties,  among  which  are  several  of  excellent  quality.  Of  six  va¬ 
rieties  presented  by  him  the  present  season,  live  were  entirely  free 
from  the  peculiar  foxy  flavor  of  the  native  grape.” 

Ten  varieties  were  also  sent  to  Dr.  Robert  Hogg,  editor  of  the 
London  Journal  of  Horticulture,  and  the  following  mention  is 
made  of  them  in  that  publication  for  Nov.  11  j  1875  : — 

u  We  have  received  from  Mr.  George  Haskell,  of  Ipswich,  Mass., 
a  collection  of  ten  varieties  of  Seedling  Grapes,  raised  by  cross¬ 
ing  the  native  Vitis  riparia  with  European  varieties,  and  vice  versa. 
These  are  very  curious,  and  some  of  them  are  very  excellent  va¬ 
rieties.  The  influence  of  the  cross  is  very  apparent  in  all  of  them,, 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  this  way  varieties  may  be  raised  that 
will  ripen  out  of  doors  in  this  country.  Even  in  this  unfavorable 
season  Admiral  Hornby  has  ripened  one  of  the  American  Grapes 
at  the  Cottage,  Ivnowsley,  and  Mr.  E.  J.  Beale  has  been  equally 
successful  at  Twickenham.  One  or  two  varieties  which  have  the 
Black  Hamburgh  and  White  Chasselas  for  their  male  parents  are 
very  good  indeed,  and  have  a  flavor  which  is  quite  peculiar.” 

Similar  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  many  grape-growers  in 
distant  parts  of  the  country,  to  whom  the  grapes  have  been  sent 
during  the  last  eight  years,  but  I  have  not  deemed  it  worth  while 
to  ask  permission  to  publish  their  communications  to  me,  and  I  do 
not  feel  at  liberty  to  do  it  without  their  consent.  These  opinions 
are  not  quoted  to  prove  that  these  grapes  possess  every  desired  qual¬ 
ity  of  fruit  and  vine  ;  but  only  to  confirm  the  belief  that  they  de¬ 
serve  attention  and  trial. 

Notwithstanding  these  flattering  testimonials  of  the  qualities  of 
these  fruits,  I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  terms  for  the  prop¬ 
agation  and  distribution  of  the  vines,  except  to  give  them  away  to 
nurserymen  and  others.  I  was  not  disposed  to  do  this,  and  I  have 
propagated  some  of  the  best  and  most  promising  varieties,  in  sufti- 


Select  Varieties. 


Repeated  trials,  during  the  last  few  years,  have  enabled  me  to  select, 
from  many  thousand  hybrid  seedling  grape  vines,  the  best  Twelve,  viz. : 
two  black,  two  red  and  two  light  amber,  having  some  of  the  musky 
flavor,  which  is  much  liked  by  some  persons;  and  two  black,  two  red 
and  two  light  amber  entirely  free  from  that  flavor. 

The  first  six  described  have  a  little  of  the  musky  flavor,  viz. : 

BLACK. 

THREE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of 
Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  round,  very  large,  skin  thin,  pulp 
tender,  sweet,  flavor  excellent,  rather  late.  Cluster:  very  large, 
shouldered,  compact.  Vine:  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very  produc¬ 
tive,  in  some  localities  and  seasons  slightly  affected  with  mildew. 

THREE-SEVENTEEN.  Parentage :  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit :  black,  oval, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender.  Cluster  :  large,  shouldered,  not  very 
compact,  of  regular  form.  Vine:  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and 
very  productive. 

RED. 

THREE-TWENTY-FIVE.  Parentage:  Seed  of  Amber  Fox  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  deep  red  or  ma¬ 
roon,  with  little  bloom,  oval,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet 
and  rich,  flavor  good.  Cluster  :  large,  regularly  shouldered,  close 
but  not  crowded.  Vine  :  vigorous,  very  productive,  bears  the  win¬ 
ter  perfectly,  but  is  sometimes  attacked  with  mildew. 

THREE-EIGHTY-SEVEN.  Parentage :  seed  of  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  dark  amber, 
round,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  firm  and  rather  tart,  flavor  excel¬ 
lent,  like  Frontignac,  rather  late.  Cluster :  large,  shouldered, 
very  compact.  Vine  :  very  vigorous,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

WHITE  OR  LIGHT  AMBER. 

THREE-FORTY.  Parentage  :  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  nearly  white  round, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  flavor.  Cluster:  very  long, 
without  shoulders,  close  but  not  crowded.  Vine  :  vigorous,  hardy 
and  productive,  sometimes  and  to  a  small  degree  affected  with  mil¬ 
dew. 

TWO-NINETY-FIVE.  Parentage:  seed  of  White  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit :  very  light  amber  or  white 
in  the  shade,  round,  large,  skin  very  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet,  flavor 
good.  Cluster:  large,  shouldered,  compact.  i.Vine:  vigorous, 
hardy,  healthy  and  enormously  productive,  producing  clusters  from 
the  eyes  at  the  base  of  the  shoot. 


The  following  described  six  are  entirely  free  from  the  musky  flavor, 
viz. : 


BLACK. 

SEVENTY-FOUR.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black  with  a  heavy  light-blue 
bloom,  oval,  very  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sprightly  and  vinous, 
flavor  good,  early.  Cluster:  medium,  small  shoulders,  compact 
but  not  crowded,  holds  the  fruit  well  and  keeps  late.  Vine  :  of 
medium  vigor,  short-jointed,  hardy,  very  productive  and  healthy. 

FOUR-TWENTY.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Black  Fox,  Fruit  :  black  with  a  blue  bloom,  oval, 
very  large,  skin  very  thick,  pulp  rather  hard  and  acid,  flavor  peculiar, 
spicy  and  delicious,  rather  late.  Cluster  :  large,  irregularly  shoul¬ 
dered,  broken  and  open.  Vine  :  very  vigorous,  hardy  and  healthy. 

RED. 

THIRTY-SIX.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit :  dark  red  with  lilac-colored 
bloom,  round,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  firm,  sweet,  flavor  good. 
Cluster:  large,  shouldered,  open,  of  regular  form.  Vine:  vigor¬ 
ous,  hardy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

THREE-HUNDRED-NINE.  Parentage:  seed  of  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit:  dark  amber, 
slightly  oval,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  flavor,  early. 
Cluster:  good  size,  small  shoulders,  open.  Vine:  vigorous,  har¬ 
dy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

WHITE  OR  LIGHT  AMBER. 

THREE-SEVENTY-THREE.  Parentage:  seed  of  small  Am¬ 
ber  Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  white 
or  light  amber,  round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  Fron¬ 
tignan  flavor.  Cluster :  large,  large  shoulders,  not  very  close. 
Vine:  of  medium  vigor,  very  hardy,  healthy  and  productive. 

THREE-HUNDRED-SIX.  Parentage  :  seed  of  large  Amber 
Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit:  light  am¬ 
ber,  round,  small,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  very  good  and  very  early. 
Cluster:  small,  slight  shoulders,  compact.  Vine:  medium  vigor, 
small  firm  wood,  hardy,  moderately  productive. 

The  above  are  for  sale  at  One  Dollar  per  vine;  any  six  for  Five  Dol¬ 
lars  or  the  twelve  for  Ten  Dollars,  delivered  at  Express  office  in  Boston. 

Remit  with  order  by  registered  letter  or  postal  order  on  Salem,  Mass. 

Ipswich,  Mass.,  1879.  GEORGE  HASKELL. 


13 


dent  numbers  to  supply  a  few  cultivators  with  an  assortment  of 
thirty  kinds,  embracing  the  best  of  different  crosses.  I  do  not  in 
tend  to  multiply  or  propagate  them  any  farther  than  may  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  secure  a  distribution  and  trial  of  them.  Several  of  those 
last  described,  promise  well, — a  few  of  them  appear  very  good — but 
they  have  not  borne  fruit  long  enough  to  determine  their  merits, 
and  I  have  not  propagated  many  from  them. 

Such  of  them  as  prove  good,  or  worthy  of  trial  elsewhere,  will  be 
sent,  if  desired,  at  the  same  rate  per  vine,  to  all  who  now  purchase 
thirty  varieties. 

If  any  grape-grower  or  nurseryman  desires  to  purchase  such  an 
assortment  of  thirty  vines,  I  shall  be  glad  to  supply  him  with  them 
at  a  very  low  price,  considering  their  cost  to  me  ;  if  they  are  not 
desired  it  may  excite  my  regret,  but  it  will  do  me  no  harm  ;  nor, 
indeed,  would  it  were  I  to  annihilate  the  whole  brood  of  vines, 
as  I,  at  times,  have  been  almost  tempted  to  do. 

GEORGE  HASKELL. 


« 


Ipswicii,  Mass.,  Jan.,  1877. 


/ 


DESCRIPTION  OE  VARIETIES. 


THREE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of 
Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  round,  very  large,  skin  tliin,  pulp 
tender,  sweet,  flavor  excellent,  rather  late.  Cluster :  very  large, 
shouldered,  compact.  Vine  :  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very  produc¬ 
tive,  in  some  localities  and  seasons  slightly  affected  with  mildew. 

THIRTY-SIX.  Parentage :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized 'with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  dark  red  with  lilac-colored 
bloom,  round,  medium,  skin  tliiD,  pulp  firm,  sweet,  flavor  good,  free 
from  foxiness.  Cluster  :  large,  shouldered,  open,  of  regular  form. 
Vine  :  vigorous,  hardy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

SEVENTY-FOUR.  Parentage :  seed  of  Black  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black  with  a  heavy  light-blue 
bloom,  oval,  very  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sprightly  and  vinous, 
flavor  good,  no  foxiness,  early.  Cluster  :  medium,  small  shoulders, 
compact  but  not  crowded,  holds  the  fruit  well  and  keeps  late. 
Vine  :  of  medium  vigor,  short-jointed,  hardy,  very  productive  and 
healthy. 

ONE-EIGHTEEN.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  little  bloom,  round, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  very  tender,  flavor  pleasant  and  sprightly,  no 
foxiness.  Cluster:  medium,  not  shouldered,  open.  Vine:  vig¬ 
orous,  hardy  and  very  healthy. 

TWO-TWENTY-FOUR.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  Pigeon.  Fruit:  black,  round,  medium, 
skin  tliin,  no  pulp,  rather  tart,  colors  early  but  improves  by  hanging 
late.  Cluster :  very  large,  very  large  shoulders,  close  but  not 
crowded.  Vine  :  very  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous  and  productive. 

TWO-THIRTY.  Parentage:  seed  of  Black  Hamburg  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Pigeon.  Fruit :  black,  round,  small,  heavy  bloom, 
skin  thin,  no  pulp,  tart,  colors  early  but  should  hang  late.  Cluster  : 
very  large  and  heavy,  small  shoulders,  long  and  very  compact. 
Vine:  very  healthy,  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive. 

TWO-NINETY-FIVE.  Parentage :  seed  of  White  Fox  fertilized 
'with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit :  very  light  amber  or  white 
in  the  shade,  round,  large,  skin  very  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet,  flavor 
good,  a  little  musky.  Cluster  :  large,  shouldered,  compact.  Vine: 
vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  enormously  productive,  producing  clus¬ 
ters  from  the  eyes  at  the  base  of  the  shoot. 


15 


THREE-TWENTY-FIVE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  deep  red  or  ma¬ 
roon,  with  little  bloom,  oval,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet 
and  rich,  flavor  good  with  a  very  little  foxiness.  Cluster:  large, 
regularly  shouldered,  close  but  not  crowded.  Vine  :  vigorous,  very 
productive,  bears  the  winter  perfectly,  but  is  sometimes  attacked 
with  mildew. 

THREE-EIGHTY-SEVEN.  Parentage :  seed  of  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  dark  amber, 
round,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  firm  and  rather  tart,  flavor  excel¬ 
lent,  like  Frontignac,  and  free  from  foxiness,  rather  late.  Cluster : 
large,  shouldered  very  compact.  Vine :  very  vigorous,  very 
healthy  and  productive. 

FOUR-TWENTY.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Black  Fox.  Fruit:  black  with  a  blue  bloom,  oval, 
very  large,  skin  very  thick,  pulp  rather  hard  and  acid,  flavor  pecu¬ 
liar,  spicy  and  delicious,  no  foxiness,  rather  late.  Cluster:  large, 
irregularly  shouldered,  broken  and  open.  Vine:  very  vigorous, 
hardy  and  healthy. 

TWELVE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized  with  pollen 
of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black  with  blue  bloom,  round,  good 
size,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender  and  sweet,  flavor  good,  no  foxiness, 
•  early.  Cluster  :  medium,  small  shoulders,  compact.  Vme  :  of 
medium  vigor,  very  hardy  and  healthy. 

ONE-THIRTY-SIX.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  Black  Fox.  Fruit  :  black,  blue  bloom, 
round,  large,  skin  thick,  pulp  firm,  flavor  good,  no  foxiness,  quite 
late.  Cluster  :  large,  large  shoulders,  full,  excellent  form.  Vine  : 
vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  enormously  productive. 

ONE-EIGHTY-FOUR.  Parentage  :  seed  of  the  Grizzly  Frontig¬ 
nan  fertilized  with  pollen  of  Pigeon.  Fruit:  black,  round,  medi¬ 
um,  skin  thin,  no  pulp,  quite  sweet,  Frontignan  flavor.  Cluster: 
long  and  ■without  shoulders,  pretty  close.  Vine:  vigorous,  pro¬ 
ductive,  hardy  and  generally  healthy. 

TWO-SIXTY-SEVEN.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Pigeon  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  round,  medium,  skin 
thin,  pulp  tender,  brisk  and  pretty  gogd.  Cluster:  medium, 
shouldered,  well  formed,  rather  open.  Vine:  healthy,  vigorous, 
hardy  and  productive. 

THREE-HUNDRED-NINE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Cliasselas.  Fruit:  dark  amber, 
slightly  oval,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  flavor,  no 
foxiness,  early.  Cluster  :  good  size,  small  shoulders,  open.  Vine: 
vigorous,  hardy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 


1G 


THREE-FORTY-THREE.  Parentage :  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  black,  round, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  flavor  good,  rather  late.  Cluster : 
very  large,  shouldered,  compact  but  not  crowded.  Vine  :  very 
vigorous,  hardy  and  productive,  generally  healthy.  The  only  black 
grape  obtained  from  many  crosses  of  the  Frontignan  and  Fox. 

THREE-SIXTY-SIX.  Parentage  :  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  purple,  heavy 
bloom,  round,  medium,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  flavor  strong  of  the 
Frontignan.  Cluster:  medium,  small  shoulders,  compact.  Vine: 
very  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  productive.  Young  foliage  very 
downy. 

THREE-SIXTY-NINE.  Parentage:  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  red,  round, 
rather  small,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet,  excellent  Frontignan 
flavor  and  very  early.  Cluster:  medium,  not  shouldered  nor 
crowded,  regular  in  form.  Vine  :  not  very  vigorous,  hardy,  very 
healthy,  and  moderately  productive. 

THREE-SEVENTY-ONE.  Parentage :  seed  of  small  Amber 
Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  dark 
red,  round,  small,  skin  thin,  pulp  firm,  with  a  strong  Frontignac 
flavor,  early.  Cluster:  medium,  not  shouldered,  very  compact. 
Vine:  vigorous,  hardy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

FOUR-EIGHTEEN.  Parentage :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg  fertil¬ 
ized  with  pollen  of  Black  Fox.  Fruit:  amber,  slightly  oval,  large, 
skin  rather  thick,  light  bloom,  pulp  tender,  sweet  and  good,  with 
foreign  flavor.  Cluster:  large,  shouldered,  very  regular  in  form, 
compact.  Vine  :  very  healthy,  very  hardy,  vigorous  and  produc¬ 
tive. 

ONE-TWENTY-TWO.  Parentage:  seed  of  early  Black  Fox  fer¬ 
tilized  with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit :  black  with  a  bloom, 
round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  red  and  quite  good,  very  early, 
Cluster:  medium,  small  shoulders,  rather  open.  Vine:  of  mod¬ 
erate  vigor,  hardy,  moderately  productive. 

THREE-SEVENTEEN.  Parentage:  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit :  amber,  oval, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender.  Cluster:  large,  shouldered,  not  very 
compact,  of  regular  form.  Vine  :  vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and 
very  productive. 

THREE-THIRTY-FOUR.  Parentage:  seed  of  large  Amber 
Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  nearly 
white,  round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet  and  good  flavor. 
Cluster  :  medium,  small  shoulders,  open.  Vine :  vigorous,  hardy, 
and  productive,  foliage  downy. 


IT 


THREE-SIXTY-SEVEN.  Parentage:  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  nearly  white, 
round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  high  Frontignan  flavor.  Clus¬ 
ter:  long,  without  shoulders,  rather  open.  Vine  :  vigorous,  hardy, 
productive,  a  little  subject  to  mildew. 

THREE-SEVENTY-THREE.  Parentage:  seed  of  small  Am¬ 
ber  Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan  Fruit:  white 
or  light  amber,  round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  Fron- 
tingnan  flavor.  Cluster,:  large,  large  shoulders,  not  very  close. 
Vine:  of  medium  vigor,  very  hardy,  healthy  and  productive. 

ONE-SIXTY-NINE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Pigeon  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Grizzly  Frontignan.  Fruit:  black,  round,  small,  skin 
thin,  no  pulp,  rather  tart,  early,  should  hang  late.  Cluster:  medi¬ 
um,  shouldered,  not  very  compact.  Vine:  very  hardy  and  healthy, 
moderately  productive  but  vigorous. 

ONE-EIGHTY-EIGHT.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Grizzly  Frontig¬ 
nan  fertilized  with  pollen  of  Pigeon.  Fruit:  black,  round,  small, 
skin  thin,  blue  bloom,  no  pulp,  rather  tart,  juice  red.  Cluster: 
large,  very  long,  small  shoulders,  very  compact.  Vine:  very  vig¬ 
orous,  hardy,  healthy  and  very  productive. 

TWO-TWENTY-NINE.  Parentage :  seed  of  Black  Hamburg 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  Pigeon.  Fruit:  black,  round,  large,  skin 
thin,  no  pulp,  juice  red  and  rather  tart,  should  hang  late.  Cluster : 
very  large,  broad  and  long,  compact.  Vine  :  very  vigorous,  healthy 
and  hardy,  very  productive. 

THREE-TWENTY-FOUR.  Parentage:  seed  of  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  white,  round, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  very  tender,  flavor  good  and  free  from  foxiness. 
Cluster:  very  large,  shouldered,  full  but  not  crowded.  Vine: 
vigorous,  hardy,  healthy  and  productive. 

THREE-FORTY.  Parentage  :  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  nearly  white,  round, 
large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  excellent  flavor,  no  foxiness.  Cluster  : 
very  long,  without  shoulders,  close  but  not  crowded.  Vine  :  vigor¬ 
ous,  hardy  and  productive,  sometimes  and  to  a  small  degree  affected 
with  mildew. 

NINETEEN.  Parentage  :  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  little  bloom,  round, 
small,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender  and  slightly  acid,  quite  early.  Cluster : 
medium,  shouldered,  very  compact.  Vine:  vigorous,  hardy,  very 
productive  and  healthy. 

SIXTY-FOUR.  Parentage  :  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  red,  round,  small,  skin 


13 


thin,  pulp  tender,  very  good  flavor.  Cluster:  small,  shouldered, 
open.  Vine  :  very  vigorous  and  healthy,  hardy,  not  very  pro  ductive. 

THREE  HUNDRED.  Parentage:  seed  of  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit :  white  or  very  light  amber- 
round,  large,  skin  thin,  flavor  good,  early.  Cluster  :  large,  shoul¬ 
dered,  compact.  Vine:  vigorous,  hardy,  very  healthy  and  productive. 

THREE-HUNDRED-SIX.  Parentage  :  seed  of  large  Amber 
Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Chasselas.  Fruit  :  light  am¬ 
ber,  round,  small,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  very  good  and  very  early. 
Cluster:  small,  slight  shoulders,  compact.  Vine  :  medium  vig¬ 
or,  small  firm  wood,  hardy,  moderately  productive. 

THREE-FORTY-TWO.  Parentage :  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox 
fertilized  with  pollen  of  White  Frontignan.  Fruit:  nearly  white, 
round,  large,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet  and  good,  flavor  good. 
Cluster:  medium,  shouldered,  compact.  Vine:  vigorous,  hardy, 
healthy  and  very  productive. 

THIRTY-FIVE.  Parentage :  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  light  amber,  round,  medi¬ 
um,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender  and  sweet.  Cluster  :  medium,  small 
shoulders,  open.  Vine  :  very  vigorous,  healthy  and  productive, 
wood  rather  soft  and  tender. 

FIFTY -EIGHT.  Parentage :  seed  of  small  Amber  Fox  fertilized, 
with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit :  red,  small,  round,  skin 
thin,  little  pulp,  swTeet  and  very  early.  Cluster:  small,  sets  irreg¬ 
ularly,  open.  Vine  :  vigorous,  very  healthy  and  hardy. 

SEVENTY-FIVE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  Black  Fox  fertilized  with 
pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit:  black,  blue  bloom, round,  large, 
skin  thick,  pulp  tender,  sprightly,  flavor  good,  not  foxy,  early. 
Cluster:  large,  large  shoulders,  full,  holds  the  fruit  late.  Vine: 
very  vigorous,  very  hardy,  healthy  and  productive. 

NINETY-FIVE.  Parentage  :  seed  of  large  Amber  Fox  fertilized 
with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit :  amber,  round,  large,  pulp 
very  tender  and  tart,  flavor  very  good,  not  foxy,  early.  Cluster: 
medium,  without  shoulders,  open,  irregular.  Vine  ;  medium  vig¬ 
or,  very  hardy  and  healthy,  moderately  productive. 

ONE-TWENTY-EIGHT.  Parentage  :  seed  of  very  early  Black 
Fox  fertilized  with  pollen  of  Black  Hamburg.  Fruit :  light  am¬ 
ber,  medium,  round,  skin  thin,  pulp  tender,  sweet,  of  excellent  fla¬ 
vor,  early.  Cluster:  medium,  small  shoulders.  Vine:  rather 
feeble  grower,  very  hardy  and  healthy,  shy  bearer. 


L  E  T  T  E  R 


COMMISSIONER  OF  AGRICULTURE 


TO  THE 


HON.  JNO.  W.  JOHNSTON, 

CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  AGRICULTURE,  U.  S.  SENATE, 


SORGHUM  SUGAR. 


X 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1  880. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 

Washington,  D.  C .,  April  8,  1880. 

Hon.  Jno.  W.  Johnston, 

United  States  Senate : 

Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  communi¬ 
cation  of  the  21th  ultimo,  inclosing  Senate  bill  No.  1514,  and  also  the 
resolution  introduced  by  Hon.  A.  S.  Paddock,  and  adopted  in  committee, 
requesting  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  “to  furnish  a  written  report 
giving  all  the  information  in  his  power  in  regard  to  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  sorghum  and  Chinese  sugar-cane,  its  cost,  the  character  and 
cost  of  the  machinery  necessary,  &c.,  together  with  statistics  of  the  con¬ 
sumption  and  production  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  and  all  matters 
bearing  on  the  subject.” 

Keplying  seriatim  to  these  inquiries,  I  submit  the  following,  in  some 
respects  hastily-prepared,  statement,  which,  while  it  is  not  as  complete 
an  answer  to  the  resolution  as  I  would  desire  to  make,  yet  is  as  full  as 
can  be  prepared  in  the  limited  time  at  my  command. 

The  introduction  and  widespread  distribution  by  the  department  of 
the  variety  of  sorghum  called  Minnesota  Early  Amber  (the  juice  of  which 
is  supposed  to  granulate  more  readily  than  that  of  many  other  varieties) 
has  given  a  great  impetus  within  the  past  two  years  to  the  cultivation 
of.  the  sorghum  cane  and  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar  therefrom.  It  is 
earlier  than  any  other  known  variety,  ripening  its  seed  in  from  ninety  to 
one  hundred  days,  and  (as  appears  from  reports  made  to  the  department, 
and  in  which  are  given  the  results  obtained  in  almost  every  State  in  the 
Union)  yields  bountifully  an  excellent  quality  of  sirup,  besides,  in  many 
cases,  good  sugar,  although  all  the  operations  reported,  except  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  F.  A.  Waidner  &  Co.  at  Crystal  Lake,  Ill.,  were  carried  on  with 
open-pan  evaporation.  It  should  also  be  remarked  that  these  reports 
show  that  the  farmers  who  have  raised  this  variety  of  cane  during  the  past 
year  believe  it  to  be  better,  from  the  quality  of  juice  obtained,  as  well 
as  from  the  quantity  per  acre,  than  any  other  variety  previously  culti¬ 
vated.  These  opinions,  however,  are  the  opinions  of  farmers  who  have 
not  had  the  opportunity  to  make  comparative  tests,  and  who  compare 
the  results  with  those  obtained  from  former  cultivation  and  manipulation, 
from  their  recollection  rather  than  from  note-books  in  which  experiments 
have  been  carefully  recorded. 

We  have  now  in  the  department  some  thirty-two  varieties  of  sugar- 
producing  sorghums  and  millets,  all  of  which  are  valuable  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  according  to  the  varying  soil,  climate,  cultivation,  seasons, 
and  process  of  manufacture.  That  other  valuable  varieties  of  sorghum 
are  to  be  obtained  is  altogether  probable.  The  so-called  Honduras  sor¬ 
ghum  is  only  one  of  the  varieties  native  to  the  country  of  Honduras ; 
and  1  have  information  that  leads  me  to  believe  that  there  are  several 
1  AG 


2 


varieties  growing  in  Central  America  and  also  at  the  mouth  of  Bio  de  la 
Plata,  in  South  America.  It  is  not  impossible  that  varieties  superior  to 
any  we  now  have  may,  in  a  few  years,  be  common  amongst  us.  It  is  of 
h  e  highest  importance  to  the  country  at  large  that  all  obtainable  varie¬ 
ties  of  cane  should  be  carefully  and  scientifically  examined ;  and,  if  pos¬ 
sible,  they  should  be  grown  in  various  soils  and  climates,  that  we  may 
know  which  is  best  adapted  to  particular  localities,  which  will  give  the 
best  results  for  the  least  expense,  and  which,  in  the  hands  of  the  least 
intelligent,  can  be  most  easily  manipulated. 

For  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  there  is  probably  no  cane 
so  suitable  as  the  Early  Amber ;  and,  perhaps,  it  might  be  said  that  no 
other  variety  would  ripen  sufficiently  to  yield  sugar  with  certainty  (al¬ 
though  it  might  give  good  sirup)  above  the  latitude  of  Chicago.  Below 
this  latitude  the  Liberian  might  be  planted  as  auxiliary  to  the  Early 
Amber,  while  in  the  latitude  of  Saint  Louis  and  to  the  south  of  it,  Hon¬ 
duras  sorghum  should  be  added  to  the  other  two  varieties ;  thus  ex¬ 
tending  the  season  for  working  the  cane  into  sugar  many  weeks  beyond 
the  period  that  could  be  utilized  in  this  wray  if  but  one  kind  of  cane 
were  planted — the  Early  Amber  ripening  in  about  ninety  to  one  hun¬ 
dred  days,  the  Chinese  two  weeks  later,  and  the  Honduras  some  five* 
weeks  after  the  Chinese,  all  being  planted  at  the  same  time. 

Illustrations  of  the  seed-bearing  tops  of  these  different  varities  have 
been  prepared  for  the  forthcoming  annual  report  of  this  department 
and  are  included  in  this  reply,  in  inclosure  marked  A. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Northwestern  Cane  Growers’  Association  held 
in  Minnesota  last  season,  the  subject  of  planting,  cultivating,  and  har¬ 
vesting  Early  Amber  cane  and  of  its  manufacture  into  sugar  was  so 
thoroughly  discussed  that  a  resume  of  the  proceedings  of  that  conven¬ 
tion  will  probably  give  as  much  practical  information  on  the  question 
as  can  be  condensed  into  the  same  space.  The  convention  decided  that 
as  to  the  kind  of  seed  to  be  planted  in  Minnesota  there  was  no  room 
for  debate,  the  Early  Amber  being  the  only  sort  that  would  ripen  in 
that  high  latitude  5  but  the  discussion  of  the  characteristics  of  soil  best 
adapted  to  the  cane  showed  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  availa¬ 
bility  of  new  land.  But  for  fuller  information  touching  these  matters 
I  would  respectfully  refer  you  to  inclosure  marked  B. 

The  experimental  work  done  at  the  department  during  the  past  two 
years  in  examining  different  sorghums  has  shown  that  old  ideas  in 
relation  to  the  habit  of  the  different  varieties  of  this  plant  need  to  be 
corrected  in  many  respects.  The  chemist  of  the  department  has  demon¬ 
strated  that  there  is  practically  bat  little  if  any  difference  in  the  juice 
of  different  varieties ;  that  all  varieties  produce  sugar  that  can  be  easily 
granulated,  if  the  cane  be  taken  at  the  proper  period  of  growth;  and 
that  the  only  important  question  yet  to  be  determined  is  as  to  the  variety 
that  will  yield  the  largest  amount  in  a  given  soil  and  climate.  The 
Early  Amber,  the  Liberian,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Honduras,  planted 
the  past  year  within  the  corporate  limits  of  this  city,  all  yielded  excel¬ 
lent  results,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  report  of  the  chemist  of 
the  department,  prepared  for  our  annual  report  for  1879  not  yet  pub¬ 
lished  : 

Hon.  W.  G.  Le  Due, 

Commissioner  of  Agriculture : 

Sin:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  results  of  our  recent  experiments  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  stalks  of  corn,  sorghum,  and  pearl  millet,  made  at 
the  Agricultural  Department  during  the  year  1879. 

During  the  past  season  there  have  been  made  several  series  of  investigations  for  the 


3 


purpose  of  determining  the  development  of  sugar  in  the  juices  of  several  varieties  of 
sorghum  and  of  pearl  millet,  and  the  results  are  such  as  to  warrant  their  being  given 
to  the  people  at  the  earliest  opportunity. 

These  investigations  appear  to  demonstrate  that  there  exists  little  difference  between 
the  various  kinds  of  sorghum  as  sugar-producing  plants;  and,  what  is  quite, a  sur¬ 
prising  result,  each  of  them  is,  at  a  certain  period  of  its  development,  nearly  if  not 
quite  as  rich  in  sugar  as  the  very  best  of  sugar-cane.  It  is  a  matter,  also,  of  extreme 
practical  importance  that  this  maximum  content  of  sugar  is  maintained  for  a  long 
period,  and  affords  sufficient  time  to  workup  a  large  crop.  Another  result  of  these 
investigations  has  been  to  satisfactorily  explain  the  cause  of  repeated  failure  in  the 
production  of  sugar  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  and  to  give  the  assurance 
that  in  the  future  such  failure  need  not  attend  this  industry.  For  the  purpose  of 
making  clear  the  above  points,  the  results  obtained  in  the  laboratory  and  in  out-of- 
door  experiments  are  appended. 

The  varieties  of  sorghum  grown  and  subjected  to  continuous  investigation  during 
the  season  were  Early  Amber,  White  Liberian,  Chinese,  and  Honduras,  and  Pearl 
Millet.  Besides  the  above  there  were  made  very  many  examinations  of  other  speci¬ 
mens  of  sorghums  and  corn-stalks;  all  the  results  of  which  only  confirmed  the 'general 
principle  above  stated,  viz,  the  practical  equality  and  great  value  of  every  variety  of 
this  plant. 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  results  of  the  analysis  of  each  of  the  plants  in 
the  successive  stages  of  development.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  of  glucose 
(or  uncrystal  lizable  sugar)  diminishes,  and  the  amount  of  sucrose  (or  true  cane-sugar) 
increases.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  plants  (litter  widely  in  the  date  when  the 
sucrose  is  at  its  maximum,  but  are  alike  in  this,  that  this  maximum  is  attained  at 
about  the  same  degree  of  development  of  the  plant,  viz,  at  full  maturity,  as  indicated 
by  the  hard,  dry  seed,  and  the  appearance  of  ott'-slioots  from  the  upper  joints  of  the 
stalk.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  heavy  frost  of  October  24,  which  was  suffi¬ 
cient  to  produce  one-half  inch  of  ice,  did  not  cause  any  marked  diminution  of  sugar. 

For  purpose  of  comparison,  analyses  are  also  appended  of  three  varieties  of  sugar¬ 
cane  received  from  Louisiana,  which  arrived  in  excellent  condition,  and  doubtless 
fairly  represented  the  a  verage  character  of  this  famous  sugar-plant. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  results  of  these  tables  are  to  be  taken  as  a  whole,  since 
it  was  practically  impossible  to  secure  in  each  case  specimen  stalks  for  examination 
in  the  laboratory,  the  development  of  which  in  every  case  corresponded  to  the  date 
when  the  plant  was  cut,  and,  therefore,  it  doubtless  happened  that  plants  taken  from 
the  same  row  upon  September  15,  for  example,  were  in  reality  no  further  developed 
than  those  selected  a  week  earlier,  but  taken  as  a  whole  the  several  series  of  analyses 
are  convincing  as  showing  the  rate  and  progress  of  development  of  saccharine  matter 
in  the  plant. 

By  reference  to  the  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  the  analyses  made  of  the  several 
sorghums  under  date  of  October  29,  were,  after  they  had  been  subjected  to  a  very  hard 
frost,  sufficient  to  have  formed  ice  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  and  this  cold  weather 
continued  for  four  days  before  this  examination  was  made.  As  will  be  seen,  there 
appears  no  diminution  of  sucrose  in  either  of  the  stalks  examined  and  no  increase  of 
glucose  as  the  result  of  this  freezing  and  continued  exposure  to  a  low  temperature. 
The  examination  of  November  8  was  made  after  a  few  days  of  warm  weather  had  fol¬ 
lowed  this  cold  spell,  and  the  inliuence  of  this  subsequent  thaw  is  noticeable  in  the 
diminution  of  sucrose  and  the  increase  of  glucose  in  each  specimen  examined. 

From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  effect  of  cold,  even  protracted,  is  not  injurious 
to  the  quality  of  the  canes,  but  that  they  should  be  speedily  worked  up  after  freezing 
and  before  they  have  again  thawed  out.  This  is  a  matter  of  such  practical  importance 
that  some  experiments  should  be  made  to  leant  whether  the  sirup  prepared  from  the 
juice  of  frozen  cane  differs  from  that  prepared  from  cane  not  frozen  but  in  other  re¬ 
spects  of  like  quality. 

The  Early  Amber,  Chinese,  Liberian,  and  Honduras  sorghums  and  the  Pearl  Millet 
examined,  mentioned  as  having  been  grown  upon  the  department  grounds,  were  all 
planted  the  same  day,  May  15,  1879. 

The  relative  weights  of  the  different  kinds  of  sorghum  experimented  upon  are  as 
follows : 

Pounds. 

Early  Amber,  average  of  40  stalks .  1. 73 

White  Liberian,  average  of  38  stalks  . .  1.80 

Chinese,  average  of  25  stalks .  2. 00 

Honduras,  average  of  lfi  stalks .  3.  04 

Since  these  were  all  grown  side  by  side  and  upon  land  presumably  of  equal  fertility, 
it  will  afford  the  data  for  calculating  the  relative  amount  of  each  variety  to  be  grown 
per  acre. 


Early  Amber. 


4 


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milky. 

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Juice  brown  in  color . 

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. do . 

Ripe  and  dry;  juices  bright  red . 

Juices  bright  rod . 

Leaves  killed  by  frost . 

CJuite  dead . 

FOREIGN. 

Seed  just  brown;  not  in  milk . 

Browning,  but  not  much  milk . 

Brown  and  in  milk . 

Brown  and  hard . 

Date. 

X  *D  t>  rHCOCDDCMCDDXCOLOOt^COCOr-OX  t^HXH 

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16 


For  purpose  of  further  comparison  the  following  analyses  of  sugar -caues  and  juice 
of  the  sugar-cane  grown  in  Madras,  India,  are  given  below.  The  canes  were  divided 
into  upper,  middle,  and  lower  thirds,  each  third  being  2  feet  in  length,  except  the 
lower  thirds  of  the  selected  canes,  which  were  3  feet  in  length. 


Bundle  ot  medium  good  canes. 

Bundle  of  selected  canes. 

Upper 

third. 

Middle 

third. 

Lower 

third. 

Upper 

third. 

Middle  I 
third. 

Lower 

third. 

Bagasse . 

7.630 

8.  470 

8.  300 

7.  580 

8.650 

8.  290 

Sucrose . 

10.  630 

13.  310 

13.  370 

9. 490 

13.  640 

13.  850 

Glucose . 

2.  640 

1.  510 

.  1.  540 

2. 430 

.736 

.710 

Ash. . 

.307 

.259 

.233 

.545 

.363 

.349 

Water . 

78.334 

75.  612 

76. 122 

79.  484 

75.  628 

75.  945 

Undetermined  . . 

.459  : 

.839 

.  455 

.471 

.983 

.  856 

100.000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.000 

100.  000 

ANALYSIS  OF  EXPRESSED  JUICE. 


Sucrose . 

11.510 

14.  550 

14.  580 

10.  270 

14.  930 

15. 110 

Glucose . 

2.  860 

1.  650 

1.  680 

2.  630 

.806 

.775 

Ash . 

.  333 

.283 

.255 

.590 

.398 

.381 

Undetermined . 

.497 

.  917 

.485 

.510 

1.  076 

.  934 

Water . 

84.  800 

82.  600 

83.  000 

86.  000 

82.  790 

82.  800 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

100.  000 

Chem.  Cent.  Blatt.,  February,  1880. 


For  more  clearly  presenting  the  facts  developed  by  the  examinations  of  the  four 
kinds  of  sorghum,  the  following  chart  represents  graphically  the  foregoing  results : 

It  will  be  observed  how  closely  the  Early  Amber  and  Liberian  correspond  in  their 
development,  being  almost  identical,  and  yet  being  clearly  distinct  varieties.  It  will 
also  be  seen  that  while  these  two  varieties  attain  a  content  of  sugar  in  their  juices 
equal  to  the  average  content  in  the  juice  of  sugar-cane  by  the  middle  of  August,  the 
Chinese  does  not  reach  this  condition  until  the  last  of  September,  while  the  Honduras 
does  not  reach  this  point  until  the  middle  of  October. 

It  will  be  seen  also  that  after  having  attained  approximately  the  maximum  content 
of  sugar,  this  condition  is  maintained  for  a  long  period,  adording  ample  time  to  work 
up  the  crop. 

It  is  doubless  true  that  had  the  season  been  longer  it  would  have  been  found  that 
the  Chinese  and  Honduras  having  once  attained  this  full  development  of  sugar 
would  also  have  retained  it ;  but,  as  is  seen  by  the  chart,  the  heavy  frosts  and  sub¬ 
sequent  warm  weather  which  happened  about  November  24,  caused  a  rapid  dimi¬ 
nution  of  sucrose  in  each  variety,  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  glucose. 

The  converse  of  what  is  found  true  of  the  sucrose  is  clearly  shown  as  to  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  glucose,  and  it  is  seen  that  a  minimum  quantity  once  attained  is 
continued  a  long  time,  and  that  this  minimum  is  quite  as  low  as  the  average  amount 
found  present  in  the  sugar-canes. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  results  depicted  upon  the  chart  are  not  to  be  taken  as  entirely 
exact,  but  the  general  fact  represented  is  without  doubt  true,  and  with  a  still  larger 
number  of  observations  the  approach  to  true  curves  would  be  found  nearer  than  here 
represented. 

The  line  representing  the  average  per  cent,  of  sucrose  in  sugar-beets  is  from  the  re¬ 
sults  of  analysis  of  thirteen  specimens  of  sugar-beets  grown  upon  the  Agricultural  Col¬ 
lege  farm,  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  analyzed  by  Professor  Groessmann  ( vide  Mass.  Agric. 
Kept.,  1870-71).  1  *  , 

An  average  of  all  the  examinations  made  of  these  four  sorghums  during  these  pe¬ 
riods  when  they  were  suitable  for  cutting  gives  the  following  results  : 

Early  Amber,  from  August  13  to  October  29  inclusive,  15  analyses  extending  over 
78  days,  14.6  per  cent,  sucrose. 

Liberian,  from  August  13  to  October  29  inclusive,  13  analyses,  extending  over  78 
days,  13.8  per  cent,  sucrose. 

Chinese,  from  September  13  to  October  29  inclusive,  7  analyses,  extending  over  46 
days,  13.8  per  cent,  sucrose. 

Honduras,  from  October  14  to  October  29  inclusive,  3  analyses,  extending  over  16 
days,  14.6  per  cent,  sucrose. 

Besides  the  investigations  above  mentioned,  there  have  been  made  33  experiments 


d<H 


A.Hoen&Co.  Lith.Baltimorr 


17 


in  making  sugar  from  cornstalks,  sorghums,  pearl  millet,  &c.,  in  all  of  which  there 
have  been  used  over  23  tons  of  stalks.  The  result  of  these  experiments  has  been  to 
fully  confirm  all  the  experiments  of  the  previous  year,  not  only,  but  also  to  help  to¬ 
wards  the  solution  of  certain  questions  of  the  highest  practical  importance.  In 
every  case  it  has  been  found  that  the  quality  of  the  sirup  obtained  has  been  precisely 
such  as  the  previous  analysis  in  the  laboratory  of  the  juice  used  made  probable.  An 
average  of  the  nine  best  sirups  obtained  showed  a  percentage  of  cane-sugar  present 
equal  to  92.7  of  the  amount  originally  present  in  the  juice,  while  an  average  of  the 
nine  poorest  (i.  e.,  containing  the  lowest  percentage  of  cane-sugar)  showed  a  percent¬ 
age  of  cane-sugar  present  equal  to  90.1  of  the  amount  present  in  the  juice. 

This  must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  there  has  been  no  loss  of  sugar  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  as  such  conclusion  would  be  quite  erroneous,  as  will  be  seen 
by  consulting  tables  further  on  in  this  report. 

Below  are  given  the  detailed  results  of  33  experiments  in  the  making  of  sirups  from 
sorghum,  pearl  millet,  and  cornstalks,  and  analyses  of  the  juices  from  which  these 
sirups  were  made.  These  stalks  were  obtained  from  neighboring  farmers,  and,  as  will 
be  seen,  were  never  in  the  condition  best  suited  for  working,  but  the  results  obtained 
from  them  are,  however,  of  great  practical  value,  and  are  given  in  detail. 

The  last  column  represents  the  relative  loss  of  sucrose  in  making  sirup,  as  compared 
with  the  glucose  present,  but  gives  no  indication  as  to  the  absolute  loss  which  may 
have  been  incurred,  and  since  the  economical  production  of  sugar  largely  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  this  loss,  this  matter  is  discussed  more  fully  in  another  place. 

2  aG 


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19 


The  apparatus  used  in  the  experiments,  besides  a  few  barrels  and  [jails  for  holding 
the  juice,  consisted  of  a  copper  tank  of  the  following  dimensions:  4  feet  3  inches  long, 
2  feet  3  inches  deep,  2  feet  3  inches  wide  ;  a  galvanized  iron  pan  9  feel  long  8  inches 
deep,  3  feet  6  inches  wide.  This  iron  pan  was  surrounded  by  a  wooden  frame  of 
2-inch  plank  so  sis  to  support  the  sides,  and  each  pan  was  placed  in  brickwork 
with  chimney,  and  so  arranged  as  to  permit  a  lire  to  be  kept  below  it  in  direct 
contact  with  the  bottom.  In  the  case  of  the  copper  tank  the  dame  played  about 
the  sides  also,  so  as  to  boat  the  contents  more  rapidly.  The  galvanized  iron  pan 
was  such  as  could  readily  be  constructed  by  any  ordinary  tinsmith  or  mechanic.  The 
copper  tank  was  used  for  defecation  with  lime;  the  galvanized  iron  pan  for  evapora¬ 
tion.  The  process,  in  brief,  is  as  follows  :  after  topping  and  stripping  the  corn  or  sor¬ 
ghum,  it  was  passed  through  the  mill,  and  when  sufficient  juice  had  been  obtained  it 
was  heated  in  the  copper  tank  to  a  temperature  of  82°  C.  =180°  F.  After  the  juice  had 
reached  this  temperature,  there  was  added  to  it,  with  stirring,  cream  of  lime,  until  a 
piece  of  litmus  paper  dipped  in  the  juice  showed  a  purple  or  bluish-purple  color. 
The  heat  was  now  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  and,  so  soon  as  the  juice  was  in  good  ebul¬ 
lition,  the  lire  was  drawn  and  a  thick  scum  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  juice. 
After  a  few  minutes  the  sediment  from  the  juice  subsided,  and  by  means  of  a  siphon 
the  clear  liquid  was  decanted  off,  leaving  a  muddy  sediment,  which  was  equal  to 
about  one-tenth  to  one-twentieth  of  the  bulk  of  the  juice.  It  was  found  that  by  means 
of  the  stop-cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  defecator,  it  was  possible  to  draw  off  the  clar¬ 
ified  juice  more  thoroughly  than  by  means  of  the  siphon,  so  that  this  method  has 
been  adopted  for  removing  the  juice.  It  is  only  necessary  to  collect  in  a  separate  ves¬ 
sel  the  first  portions  of  juice  coming  from  stop-cock,  which  are  turbid,  and  passing  this 
through  the  bag  filter  with  the  sediment.  This  muddy  sediment  was  then  drawn  oft' 
by  means  of  a  stop-cock  and  filtered  through  a  plaited-bag  filter,  and  the  clear  filtrate 
therefrom  was  added  to  the  liquid  previously  siphoned  off.  The  clarified  juice,  which, 
during  the  above  operation,  is  not  allowed  to  cool  below  a  temperature  of  (56°  C.  or  150° 
F.,  was  now  emptied  into  the  evaporating  pan,  and  there  was  added  to  it,  with  stirring, 
a  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  in  water  until  the  lime  present  was  neutralized,  as  was 
shown  by  the  reddening  of  litmus  paper  when  it  was  dipped  in  the  juice.  The 
evaporation  was  now  hastened  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  juice  concentrated  to  a 
sirup  at  a  boiliug  [joint  of  112°  C.,  equal  to  234°  F.,  or  thereabout.  During  the  close  of 
the  evaporation  there  is  great  danger  of  scorching  the  sirup,  and  this  was  obviated 
by  allowing  only  coals  beneath  the  evaporator  and  briskly  stirring  the  syrup  by  means 
of  paddles  8  or  10  inches  wide.  'When  the  sirup  reached  the  density  above  indicated 
it  was  drawn  off  into  wooden  tubs,  the  fire  having  previously  been  drawn  from  beneath 
the  evaporator. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  many  failures  result  in  securing  a  crystallizable  sirup  even 
from  good  juice,  owing  to  the  operations  of  pressing  of  the  cane,  defecation,  and  evap¬ 
oration  being  too  much  protracted.  In  order  that  those  wishing  to  enter  upon  this 
industry  may  know  what  is  practically  attainable,  even  with  common  appliances, 
the  following  data  are  given. 

In  experiment  No.  3,  2,107  pounds  of  topped  stalks  of  Early  Amber  cane  wore  pressed 
by  the  mill  in  3£  hours,  yielding  975  pounds  of  juice.  The  time  required  for  heating 
the  juice,  defecation  with  lime,  and  evaporation  to  sirup  was  f>£  hours.  In  order  that, 
the  inferior  character  of  the  material  supplied  for  these  experiments  might  be  known, 
specimens  were  taken  from  the  several  lots  of  stalks  in  experiments  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  and 
it  was  found  that  the  average  weight  of  the  stalks  in  these  lots  was  four  ounces  each. 

In  most  of  the  experiments  above  recorded  the  juice  was  raised  to  the  temperature 
of  82c  C.  (180°  F.),  and  then  neutralized  with  milk  of  lime,  but  several  experiments  were 
made  to  learn  the  effect  produced  by  neutralization  with  lime  at  different  tempera¬ 
tures. 

In  experiment  No.  4  the  juice  was  divided  into  two  portions,  and  the  lime  was 
added  to  the  one  portion  at  40°  C.  (104°  F. ) ;  to  the  other  portion  at  25°  C.  (77°  F.), 
and  the  portions  were  separately  evaporated  to  sirup. 

In  experiment  No.  13  the  lime  was  added  directly  after  the  juice  was  obtained  from 
the  mill,  the  temperature  being  16°  C.  (01°  F.). 

In  experiment  No.  18,  the  lime  was  added  at  80°  C.  (170°  F.). 

In  the  above-mentioned  experiments  the  results  were  entirely  satisfactory,  and 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  neutralization  by  means  of  lime  may  be  effected  at  any  stage 
below  82°  C.  No  experiments  were  made  in  neutralizing  at  higher  temperature  than 

An  experiment  was  also  made  to  determine  whether  splitting  the  canes  before  they 
were  passed  through  the  mill  would  increase  the  percentage  of  juice  obtained  from 
the  stalks.  One  hundred  pounds  of  butt  ends  of  Honduras  sorghum  were  split  length¬ 
wise  and  then  passed  through  the  mill.  Another  parcel  of  one  hundred  pounds  of 
butts  of  tin*  same  variety  or  sorghum,  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  previous  lot,  was 
passed  through  the  mill  without  splitting  them.  The  results  obtained  were  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Percentage  of  juice  obtained  from  split  stalks,  54  per  cent. ;  percentage  of  juice 


20 


obtained  from  unsplit  stalks,  57  per  cent.,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  in  this 
case,  at  least,  the  previous  splitting  of  the  stalks  occasioned  an  appreciable  loss  in  juice. 

In  plate  27  the  apparatus  used  in  these  experiments  is  figured,  showing  the  relative 
position  of  mill,  pans,  &c. 

Two  pans  only  are  represented  as  being  in  use,  viz  :  the  defecating  pan  upon  the  left 
hand  in  the  wood-cut  and  the  evaporator  upon’  the  right  hand.  The  stop-cocks  by 
which  the  contents  of  the  defecating  pan  are  removed  is  not  shown  in  the  plate,  being 
concealed  by  the  small  evaporator  in  front.  A  space  of  about  two  feet  separates  the 
brick  work  underneath  the  several  pans,  permitting  one  to  pass  easily  about  them. 

The  apparatus  represented  in  the  rear  is  used  for  making  sulphurous  acid  solution, 
and  consists  of  a  small-sized  hot  water  tank  for  kitchen  range,  about  40  inches  long 
and  10  inches  diameter.  Into  this  powdered  charcoal  and  oil  of  vitriol  are  put,  and 
the  sulphurous  gas  is  passed  through  iron  pipes  into  a  wash-bottle  containing  oil  of 
vitriol,  and  from  thence  into  a  barrel  nearly  filled  with  water.  A  safety  tube  is  con¬ 
nected  with  the  wash-bottle  to  prevent  any  possible  rushing  back  of  the  water  into 
the  generator  in  case  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  heat.  By  this  apparatus  a  barrel  or 
two  of  the  solution  may  be  made  in  a  short  time  and  at  an  expense  not  over  75  cents 
per  barrel.  For  two  barrels  there  would  be  required  75  pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol  and  7 
pounds  of  powdered  charcoal. 

A  few  of  the  experiments  made  give  a  reasonable  basis  for  estimating  the  probable 
yield  of  sirup  and  sugar  to  the  acre ;  and,  therefore,  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
cost  of  producing  sugar. 

Below  is  a  tabulated  result  of  a  few  of  the  experiments  from  stalks  grown  upon  the 
grounds  of  the  department.  These  stalks  were  grown  in  rows  3  feet  apart,  and  in 
drills,  and  although  a  good  crop,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  upon  good  land  the  esti¬ 
mated  yield  to  the  acre  could  be  obtained : 


Chinese  sorghum . 

Liberian  sorghum . 

Early  Amber  sorghum 
Honduras  sorghum 

Pearl  millet . 

Eield  com . . 


Pounds  stalks 
from  acre. 

Sirup  obtained. 

Sirup,  juice  at 

best. 

. 

Sirup,  juice  = 

70  per  oent. 

38,  600 

2,  096 

2,  397 

3.  673 

33,  727 

2,  472 

2,  609 

3,  783 

32,  415 

2, 100 

2,  615 

3,  661 

66, 151 

3,  652 

5, 168 

7,  537 

65,  000 

1,  846 

3, 128 

4,  865 

27,  240 

1,166 

1,  807 

The  first  and  second  columns  give  the  results  actually  secured,  but  the  several  juices 
were  not  in  their  best  condition  as  compared  with  the  results  given  in  the  first  table. 
The  third  column  is  the  amount  of  sirup  the  same  weight  of  stalks  would  have  yielded 
had  they  been  cut  at  the  proper  time.  The  juice  obtained  from  the  stalks  by  the  im¬ 
perfect  means  at  command  of  the  department  was  little  more  than  half  the  amount 
present  in  the  stalks. 

The  fourth  column  represents  the  results  attainable  by  the  use  of  a  mill  that  would 
give  70  per  cent,  of  juice  from  the  stalks ;  a  result  which  is  possible,  and  which  is 
claimed  by  manufacturers  of  mills. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that,  when  the  present  industry  shall  have  secured  the  em¬ 
ployment  of  the  capital  and  scientific  ability  which  has  developed  the  beet-sugar 
industry,  even  these  results,  which  may  appear  extravagant  to  many,  will  be  assured. 

Although,  as  has  been  stated,  these  sirups  were  obtained  from  stalks  in  which  the 
maximum  content  of  sugar  had  not  yet  been  developed,  they  did,  however,  all  crystal¬ 
lize  well,  and  all  yielded  excellent  sugar. 

At  the  present  the  sugar  has  been  separated  from  but  the  Chinese  sorghum  sirup, 
which  yielded  in  the  first  crop  of  crystals  54.7  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  sugar;  the 
Early  Amber  sirup,  which  yielded  47.5  per  cent,  of  sugar;  and  from  the  field-corn 
sirup,  which  yielded  39.3  per  cent,  of  sugar.  This  latter  experiment  is  worthy  of 
especial  mention,  since  the  result  secured  is  not  only  most  surprising,  but  contrary  to 
an  almost  universal  belief.  The  corn-stalks  used  were  of  three  varieties  :  Lindsay’s 
Horse  Tooth,  Improved  Prolific,  and  White  Dent ;  three  coarse-growing  white  field 
corns.  The  stalks  grew  in  drills  3  feet  apart,  and  about  9  or  10  inches  apart  in  the 
drill.  The  ears  were  plucked  after  they  had  thoroughly  ripened,  and  the  husks  were 
dead  and  dry.  The  corn  was  plump  and  sound,  and  yielded  at  the  rate  of  69. 1  bushels 
of  shelled  corn  (56  pounds  to  the  bushel)  to  the  acre.  The  stalks  were  then  topped, 
stripped,  and  crushed,  and  the  juice  proved  to  be  the  best  juice  yet  obtained  from 
corn-stalks,  at  any  period  of  growth  or  of  any  variety. 


21 


Below  are  given  the  results  of  the  examination  of  the  stalks  of  Egyptian  sugar-corn, 
Honduras  and  Early  Amber  sorghums,  and  the  leaves  from  the  same.  This  examina¬ 
tion  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  loss  of  sugar  in  the  method  employed 
in  its  extraction,  also  to  determine  the  relative  nutritive  value  of  the  leaves  and 
stalks,  pressed  and  unpressed.  The  stalks  selected  were  split  lengthwise,  so  that  a 
fair  average  might  be  taken,  .and  one-half  was  dried  thoroughly  without  pressing,  and 
the  other  half  was  passed  through  the  mill,  and  the  bagasse,  or  pressed  stalks,  care¬ 
fully  saved  and  dried. 


Leaves ,  stalks,  and  bagasse  from  corn  and  sorghums 


Egyptian  sugar-corn,  leaves . 

Egyptian  sugar-corn,  one-lialf  of  4  stripped  stalks,  unpressed 
Egyptian  sugar-corn,  one-half  of  4  stripped  stalks,  pressed  . . . 

Honduras  sorghum,  leaves . 

Honduras  sorghum,  one-half  of  2  stripped  stalks,  im¬ 
pressed. 

Honduras  sorghum,  one-half  of  2  stripped  stalks,  pressed - 

Early  Amber  sorghum,  leaves . 

Early  Amber  sorghum,  one-half  of  3  stripped  stalks,  tin- 
pressed. 

Early  Amber  sorghum,  one-half  of  3  stripped  stalks, 
pressed. 


Weight  fresh. 

Weight  bagasse. 

Weight  juice. 

Per  cent,  juice. 

Weight  dry. 

Per  cent,  water. 

380 

_ l _ 

116.  6 

67.3 

832 

126.  0 

84.9 

875 

460 

415 

47.  43 

99.0 

88.7 

432 

100.8 

76.7 

1.  428 

. 

. 

285.  3 

80.0 

1,  390 

724 

666 

47.  91 

222.  7 

84.0 

399 

99.7 

75.  0 

651 

157.  9 

75.7 

905 

458 

447 

49.  39 

147.8 

83.7 

A  determination  of  the  proximate  constituents  of  the  dried  leaves,  stalks,  and  bagasse 
is  given  below,  from  which  it  will  appear  that  there  still  remains  a  large  amount  of 
sugar  in  the  bagasse  which  the  process  employed  failed  to  remove  from  the  cane  or 
stalks,  also  that  the  per  cent,  of  starch  compounds  is  greater  in  the  pressed  than  in 
the  impressed  stalks,  and  that  the  percentage  of  nitrogenous  matter  remains  nearly 
the  same.  Since  the  nutritive  value  of  the  pressed  stalks  is  nearly  if  not  quite  equal 
to  that  of  the  umpressed  stalks,  weight  for  weight,  and  as  they  are  left  in  a  mechan¬ 
ical  condition  suitable  for  their  preservation  as  green  fodder  by  the  system  of  en¬ 
silage,  it  would  appear  desirable  that  experiments  bo  made  leading  to  their  utiliza¬ 
tion  for  this  purpose. 


Proximate  analyses  of  stalks,  bagasse,  and  leaves  of  sweet  corn  and  sorghum,  calculated  to 

the  dry  substance. 


Unpressed  stalks,  Early 
Amber  sorghum. 

Unpressed  stalks,  Hon¬ 
duras  sorghum. 

U  npreesed  stalks,  Egyp¬ 
tian  sugar-corn. 

Bagasse  of  Early  Amber 
sorghum. 

Bagasse  of  Honduras 
sorghum. 

3 

09 

a 

.3 

Ss 

fees 

W  ? 

V-  u 

®  tc 

1 

■ 

— 

« 

Leaves  of  Early  Amber 
sorghum. 

Leaves  of  Honduras  sor¬ 
ghum. 

Leaves  of  Egyptian  su¬ 
gar-corn. 

Organic  acid,  chlorophyll, 

7. 36 

5.  39 

2.  85 

1.  47 

2.  01 

l.  n 

1.46 

3. 29 

1.48 

color. 

Wax . 

.94 

.33 

.44 

.35 

.84 

.40 

5.  05 

1.67 

.54 

Brown  resin . 

6.  98 

6.  00 

8. 11 

5. 11 

3.53 

5.  75 

7.91 

6.  67 

5.20 

Sugars . 

34.  73 

38. 14 

26.  01 

19.  36 

21.77 

10.  08 

8.58 

9.  37 

8.21 

Gum . 

2.14 

1.  57 

1.38 

2.  04 

2.  20 

1.33 

3.82 

2.  78 

4.  54 

Starch  isomers . 

20.  34 

17.  67 

22.44 

31.46 

26.  27 

23.  16 

14.  49 

21.  22 

24.77 

Albuminoids . 

4.  95 

4.  81 

6.90 

3.  96 

3.  87 

6.  04 

13.  14 

10.  43 

11.34 

Alkali  extract,  by  differ- 

5. 15 

6.  09 

13.  35 

15. 10 

22.  26 

12.  08 

11.98 

12.  65 

ence. 

Crude  liber . 

16.  01 

16.  48 

19.  82 

19. 10 

20.  66 

25.  00 

17.  98 

18.  51 

20.83 

Ash,  by  ignition . 

6.55 

4.  46 

5.  96 

3.  80 

3.  75 

4.  87 

15.49 

14.  08 

10.44 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.00 

22 


By  reference  to  the  two  preceding  tables,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  very  large  percent . 
age  of  the  sugar  was  lost  by  the  method  employed  in  its  production. 

The  amount  of  sugar  in  the  Early  Amber  cane,  dry,  is  to  the  amount  present  in  the 
Early  Amber  bagasse,  dry,  as  100  is  to  55.74. 

In  Honduras  cane,  dry  :  Honduras  bagasse,  dry  : :  100  :  57.08. 

In  Egyptian  sugar-corn,  dry  :  Egyptian  sugar-corn  bagasse,  dry  :  :  100  :  38.75. 


As  will  be  seen  from  these  analyses — 

Per  cent,  sugar. 

The  Honduras  cane,  fresh,  contained .  7.62 

The  Early  Amber  cane,  fresh,  contained .  8.42 

The  Egyptian  sugar-corn,  fresh,  contained .  3.94 

while  the  sugar  remaining  in  the  bagasse,  calculated  to  the  fresh  cane  which  produced 
these  bagasses,  gave  as  follows  : 

Per  cent,  sugar. 

Honduras  sorghum . , . . .  3.49 

Early  Amber  sorghum .  3.16 

Egyptian  sugar-corn . . .  1.14 


In  other  words,  it  will  appear  that  there  was  occasioned  a  loss  of — 

46.4  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  present  in  Honduras  sorghum. 

37.4  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  present  in  Early  Amber  sorghum. 

28.9  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  present  in  Egyptian  sugar-corn. 

The  importance,  therefore,  of  a  good  mill  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  it  is  desir¬ 
able  that  efforts  be  made  to  devise  some  process  by  which  results  approximating  those 
obtained  in  the  extraction  of  sugar  from  beets  shall  be  attained,  since  it  is  obvious 
that  should  the  beet-sugar  industry  be  conducted  in  so  wasteful  a  manner  as  is  the 
production  of  sugar  from  cane  or  frbm  sorghum,  this  important  industry  could  not 
survive  a  year,  even  in  those  countries  most  favorably  circumstanced  in  regard  to  the 
production  of  beet  sugar. 

For  convenience  the  following  results  which  were  obtained  last  year  are  appended, 
since  these  experiments  were  only  confirmed  this  year,  but  the  results  have  not  been 
tabulated. 

In  the  experiments  made  with  corn-stalks  the  stalks  were  invariably  stripped,  the 
tops  being  cut  off  at  about  the  second  joint.  The  percentage  of  stripped  stalks,  leaves, 
and  tops  is  given  in  this  table  : 


Corn-stalks. 

Per  cent,  of 
stripped 
stalks. 

Per  cent,  of 
leaves  and 
toils. 

No.  1 . 

G7.  57 

32.43 

No.  2 . 

58.  69 

31.  31 

Nos.  3  and  4 . 

G7.  46 

32.  54 

Average . 

67.  91 

32.  09 

In  those  cases  where  the  sorghum  was  stripped  and  topped  the  following  percentage 
of  stripped  stalks  and  of  leaves  and  tops  was  obtained: 


Sorghum. 

Per  cent,  of 
stripped 
stalks. 

Percent,  of 
leaves  and 
tops. 

72.  67 
72.  55 

27.  33 
27.  45 

No.  6 . . 

Average . . . . . . 

72.  61 

27.  39 

On  account  of  the  trouble  in  stripping  the  stalks,  experiments  were  made  with  stalks 
unstripped,  the  tops  alone  being  removed,  and  these  experiments  appear  to  prove  that 
this  troublesome  operation  of  stripping  may  be  avoided  without  any  diminution  of 
the  amount  of  juice  or  of  sugar  obtained  therefrom. 

Below  are  the  results  obtained  from  stripped  and  unstripped  sorghum,  calculated  to 
the  raw  stalks  used. 

By  raw  stalks  is  meant  the  stalks  as  they  were  cut  in  the  field,  leaves,  tops,  and  all. 


Average  per 
cent,  of  juice 
to  raw  stalks. 

Average  per 
cent,  sirup 
in  juice. 

Stripped  soTglium,  two  experiments . 

35.  02 

15.  00 

Unstripped  sorghum,  five  experiments . 

40.  60 

15.  47 

From  tlie  above  it  will  be  seen  that  not  only  was  an  increased  amount  of  juice  ob¬ 
tained,  but  that  this  juice  gave  an  increased  percentage  of  sirup,  and  there  appears 
nothing  unusual  iuthe  treatment  of  this  juice  from  the  unstripped  cane,  nor  was  there 
any  appreciable  difference  in  the  readiness  of  the  sirup  to  crystallize,  nor  in  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  sugar  finally  obtained. 

Although  perhaps  further  experiments  are  desirable  before  considering  this  point  as 
settled,  it  would  appear  from  the  above  that  not  only  was  stripping  unnecessary,  but 
that  it  really  involved  a  loss  in  the  amount  of  sugar  to  be  obtained  ;  at  least  the  above 
results  indicate  a  difference  of  twenty  per  cent,  increase  in  product  in  favor  of  the  un¬ 
stripped  cane.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  above  result  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
leaves  in  passing  through  the  mill  tended  to  fill  up  the  interstices  between  the  com¬ 
pressed  cane,  and  thus  prevented  the  expressed  juice  from  flowing  through  between 
the  rolls  with  the  bagasse.  In  case  of  discoloration  by  action  of  moisture  or  other 
causes,  it  will,  however,  be  advisable,  and  probably  necessary,  to  strip  the  stalks. 

Several  experiments  were  also  made  with  both  corn-stalks  and  sorghum  to  determine 
the  relative  value  of  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  stalks,  with  the  results  given  in 
the  following  table : 


Corn-stalks,  Imtt  ends,  No.  3 
Corn-stalks,  top  ends,  No.  4  . 
Sorghum,  butt  ends,  No.  8  .. 
Sorghum,  butt  ends,  No.  10.. 
Sorghum,  top  ends,  No.  9. ... 
Sorghum,  top  ends, 'No.  11... 


Percentage  of 
juice  to  stalks. 

Specific  grav¬ 
ity  of  juice. 

Percentage  of 
sirup  in  juice. 

29.  04 

1053 

14.  62 

19.  94 

.  1050 

13.  46 

47. 49 

1059 

16.41 

41.49 

1062 

16.  47 

43.  16 

1057 

84.  70 

34.  09 

1 

1059 

14.  26 

Nos.  8  and  9  were  the  butts  and  tops  of  the  same  stalks,  and  were  cut  just  after  a 
rain,  as  were  also  Nos.  10  and  11,  from  which  the  rain  had  evaporated,  and  the 
difference  in  yield  of  juice  and  sirup  between  butts  and  tops  is  nearly  constant.  The 
increase  in  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  from  butts  over  that  from  the  top  is  also  worthy 
of  notice. 

From  the  above  table  the  conclusion  from  the  average  results  is,  that  the  proportion, 
by  weight,  of  sugar  in  the  lower  half  of  the  stalk  is  to  the  sugar  in  the  upper  half  as 
follows:  Corn  butts  to  corn  tops  as  159  to  100;  sorghum  butts  to  sorghum  tops  as  131 
is  to  100.  As  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  first  table,  the  stalks  of  both  corn  and 
sorghum  in  the  above  experiment  Avere  divided  almost  equally  by  weight  into  butts 
and  tops,  so  that  the  above  proportion  fairly  represents  the  proportion  of  yield  of  sugar 
in  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  cane.  There  was  a  marked  difference  in  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  juice  as  it  flowed  from  the  mill  (that  from  the  butts  being  lighter  in 
color,  especially  in  the  experiments  with  corn),  but  after  clarification  no  appreciable 
difference  could  be  observed,  nor  was  there  any  difference  in  the  product  except  the 
quantitative  one  above  mentioned,  which  was,  however,  a  marked  difference.  Also, 
there  was  a  marked  difference  in  granulation  in  favor  of  the  juice  from  the  butts. 

The  experiments  of  this  year  (1879)  doubtless  explain  some  of  the  results  of  the 
previous  year;  since  it  is  probably  true  that,  owing  to  immaturity,  the  tops  had  not 
yet  attained  their  maximum  content  of  sugar.  A  study  of  the  previous  tables  giving 
results  of  the  analysis  of  sorghums  shows  that  up  to  a  certain  period  the  lower  half  of 
the  cane  is  the  best,  but  that  this  does  not  remain  true  of  the  sorghum,  as  it  does  of 
the  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana,  since  the  sorghum  does  have  time  to  completely  mature, 
which  is  not  true  of  the  sugar-cane  in  our  country. 

In  the  following  table  there  have  been  calculated  from  the  results  given  of  the  ex¬ 
periments  in  the  making  of  sugar  the  following: 

1st.  The  percentages  of  the  sugar  present  in  the  juices  operated  upon,  which  were 
obtained  in  the  sirup. 

*2d.  The  percentage  of  crystal  li /.able  sugar  (sucrose)  present  in  the  juices  which  was 
obtained  in  the  sirup. 

3d.  The  percentage  of  uncrystallizablc  sugar  (glucose)  present  in  the  juices,  which 
was  obtained  in  the  sirup. 

4th.  The  percentage  of  crystallizable  sugar  present  in  the  juices,  which  was  inverted 
by  the  process  of  manufacture. 

5th.  The  percentage  of  uncrystallizablc  sugar  (glucose)  destroyed  during  the  process 
of  manufacture. 

The  presence  of  the  same  relative  proportions  of  crystallizable  and  uncrystallizablc 
sugar  in  a  sirup  to  those  present  in  the  juice  from  which  this  srup  has  been  prepared, 
by  no  means  implies  that  there  has  been  no  inversion  of  the  crystallizable  sugar;  for 
the  destructive  action  of  an  excess  of  lime  upon  glucose  is  well  known  and  is  not  un- 
frequently  made  available  in  the  production  of  sugar.  Hence  it  not  unfrequently 
happens  that  the  relative  quantity  of  crystallizable  sugar  in  the  sirup  may  be  greatly 
in  excess  of  that  present  in  the  juice,  even  after  alarge  quantity  of  the  crystal’1  'able 


24 


sugar  has  been  destroyed,  by  inversion.  It  is  only  possible  then  to  determine  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  sugars  during  the  process  of  manu¬ 
facture,  by  quantitatively  determining  the  amounts  of  sucrose  and  glucose  in  the 
juices  and  in  the  sirups  prepared  from  them. 

Since,  obviously,  this  is  a  question  of  the  greatest  practical  importance,  as  bearing 
upon  the  profitableness  of  the  induction  0f  sugar  from  corn-stalks  or  sorghum,  the 
tables  following  will  be  studied  with  interest  by  those  engaged  in  this  production. 

As  will  have  been  observed  in  the  previous  table,  there  is  a  constant  but  not  uni¬ 
form  discrepancy  between  the  polarization  of  the  sirups  and  the  amount  of  crystal- 
lizable  sugar  found  present  by  analysis. 

Almost  invariably  the  amount  of  sucrose  found  present  is  somewhat  in  excess  of  the 
amount  indicated  by  the  polariscope,  and  this  variation  is  such  as  to  forbid  any  sup¬ 
position  that  it  is  the  result  of  error  in  observation  or  in  analytical  work. 

This  explanation  may  be  found  by  consulting  the  following  tables,  by  which  it  ap- 
|)ears  that,  although  there  is  generally  about  the  same  amount  of  glucose  in  the  sirups 
relative  to  the  amount  present  in  the  juice  (averaging  97.1  per  cent.),  there  is  still 
evidence  of  the  destruction  of  an  average  of  35  per  cent,  of  the  glucose.  This  destruc¬ 
tion  of  glucose  appears  to  be  compensated,  in  part,  by  the  inversion  of  a  certain  por¬ 
tion  of  the  crystallizable  sugar,  and  this  inverted  sugar  possesses  such  action  upon  the 
polarized  ray  as  to  render  the  results  of  the  polariscope  practically  worthless. 

Practically,  it  appears  that  the  proportion  of  crystallizable  sugar  present  iu  the 
juice,  which  may  be  obtained  in  the  sirup,  depends  greatly  upon  the  condition  of  the 
stalks  when  worked.  For,  as  will  be  seen,  the  average  amount  secured  in  all  these  ex¬ 
periments  was  but  77.1  per  cent.,  still  in  those  sirups  prepared  from  canes  which  were 
in  the  proper  condition  the  amount  was  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  crystallizable  sugar 
present  in  the  juice  operated  upon.  (See  experiments  Nos.  6  and  7.)  It  is  not  im¬ 
probable  that  even  better  results  may  be  secured  after  further  experiments  shall  have 
perfected  the  process  of  manufacture  ;  but  in  view  of  the  fact  that  such  results  have 
been  attained  with  such  crude  and  simple  apparatus  as  that  employed  in  the  experi¬ 
ments  here  recorded,  this  result  is  highly  gratifying. 

We  may  hope  then  to  secure  in  sirup  90  per  cent,  of  the  crystallizable  sugar  present 
in  the  juice  operated  upon. 


Number. 

Per  cent,  of  sugars  in 
sirup  of  amount  pres¬ 
ent.  iu  juice. 

.2  ® 

O  M 

2  A 

03  C  . 

a  g 
°.r'5 

3  q*2 
^  F  +3 

£  S  <D 

ri 

— 

Per  cent,  of  glucose  in 
sirup  of  amount  pres¬ 
ent  in  juice. 

Per  cent,  of  sucrose  in¬ 
verted  of  amount 
present  in  juice. 

Per  cent,  of  glucose 
destroyed  in  process 
of  making. 

- 

9! 

82.3 

66.7 

138.3 

33.3 

0.0 

3 . 

74.7 

66.1 

102. 1 

33.9 

31.8 

4 . 

83.3 

76.0 

106.0 

24.0 

18.  0 

85.  1 

80.2 

107.8 

19.8 

12.0 

6 . 

94.  4 

89. 1 

120.  9 

10.  9 

7 . 

92.9 

91.7 

103.6 

8.3 

4.7 

8 . 

77.4 

57.7 

127.  7 

42.3 

14.6 

9 . 

89.5 

87.  1 

96.5 

12.  9 

16.4 

10 . 

91.8 

95.7 

90.7 

4.3 

13.6 

11 . . 

79.  0 

69.7 

91.2 

30.3 

39. 1 

12 . 

82. 1 

79.8 

91.3 

20.2 

28.9 

13 . 

80.4 

67.5 

114.5 

32.5 

18.0 

14 . 

86.4 

68.9 

98.  6 

31.1 

32.5 

15 . 

95.6 

98.7 

110.  6 

1.3 

16 . 

17 . 

87.4 

83.3 

96.7 

16.7 

20.  0 

18 . 

75.  5 

68.8 

103.5 

31.2 

27.7 

19 . 

71.8 

69.7 

80.4 

30.3 

49.9 

20 . 

76.  1 

77.2 

71.3 

22.  8 

51.  5 

21 . 

87.2 

82.9 

96.8 

17.1 

20.  3 

22 . 

86.3 

85.  6 

87.2 

14.4 

27.2 

23  . . 

90.8 

69.3 

98.3 

30.7 

32.4 

25 . * . 

102.  2 

102.  7 

102.0 

26 . 

58.  3 

29.7 

25.8 

70.3 

144.5 

27 . 

79.2 

28.8 

37.  5 

71.2 

133.7 

28  ....  . 

99 . . 

96. 1 

98.  5 

92.8 

1.5 

8.7 

30 . . 

85.4 

79.2 

96.  1 

20.8 

24.7 

31  ... 

118.5 

110. 1 

133.  2 

84.9 

77.  5 

93.7 

22.5 

28.8 

Average . 

85.  5 

77.1 

97.0 

24.2 

34.7 

25 


The  results  obtained  in  the  experiments  made  with  stalks  from  Sto well’s  Evergreen 
Sweet  Corn  are  most  remarkable  and  demand  explanation.  It  will  bo  seen  that  the 
juice  obtained  from  these  stalks  gave  in  the  laboratory  excellent  results,  ami  promised 
a  sirup  of  tine  quality.  By  reference  to  the  tables  it  will  be  seen,  however,  that  these 
sirups  (see  experiments  Nos.  26  and  27)  wore  wholly  abnormal  and  very  disappointing. 
These  stalks  were  cut  in  Frederick,  Md.,  October  11,  packed  in  a  close  car,  and,  through 
an  oversight,  allowed  so  to  remain  during  oppressively  hot  weather  until  the  15th. 
They  were  worked  up  on  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th.  Upon  their  arrival  at  Washington 
they  were  found  so  heated  as  to  render  their  removal  from  the  car  even  difficult,  and 
yet,"  as  will  bo  seen,  the  juice  expressed  from  them  appeared  of  excellent  quality,  but 
every  attempt  to  produce  from  it  a  crystallizable  sirup  failed,  and  an  analysis  of  the 
sirup  showed  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  sugar  had  been  inverted  (in  exper¬ 
iments  Nos.  26  and  27),  and  that  the  destruction  of  glucose  in  the  sirup  had  been  un¬ 
usually  large,  while  the  amount  of  crystallizable  sugar  present  in  the  juice,  and  re¬ 
covered  in  the  sirup,  was  less  than  30  per  cent. 

A  few  of  the  results  attained  appear  to  be  only  explicable  upon  the  supposition  that 
there  have  been  slight  errors  in  analysis,  but  revision  of  the  work  fails  to  reveal  such 
errors,  and  the  results  are  given  in  full  without  omission,  hoping  that  future  investi¬ 
gation  may  enable  us  to  solve  difficulties  which  at  present  appear  irreconcilable. 


Comparison  of  the  upper  and  lower  halves  of  sorghum-canes. 


Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  17  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum . tops.. 

Average  per  ceut.  of  water  in  16  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum . butts.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  20  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum _ tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  20  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum.,  .butts.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  23  specimens  of  Liberian  sorghum . tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  23  specimens  of  Liberian  sorghum - butts. . 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  22  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum.,  .tops.. 
Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  22  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum -butts.. 

Average  per  ceut.  of  juice  from  10  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum _ tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  10  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum.,  .butts.. 
Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  16  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum.  ..tops.. 
Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  17  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum .. butts .  . 

Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  13  specimens  of  Liberian  sorghum _ tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  13  specimens  of  Liberian  sorghum.  ..butts.. 
Average  percent,  of  juice  from  11  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum  ..tops. 
Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  11  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum. butts.. 
Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  17  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum, 

Tops . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  17  specimens  of  Chinese  sorghum, 

butts . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  21  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum, 

tops . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  21  specimens  of  Honduras  sorghum, 

butts . . . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  24  specimens  of  Liberiau  sorghum, 

tops . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  24  specimens  of  Liberian  sorghum, 

butts . . . . . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  22  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum, 

tops . 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  22  specimens  of  Early  Amber  sorghum, 
butts . 


Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  16  specimens  of  Chinese  sor¬ 


ghum  . tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  17  specimens  of  Chinese  sor¬ 
ghum . butts.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  19  specimens  of  Honduras  sor¬ 
ghum . tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  20  specimens  of  Honduras  sor¬ 
ghum . . . . .  .but tp. - 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  23  specimens  of  Liberian  sor¬ 
ghum  . ] . tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  22  specimens  of  Liberian  sor¬ 
ghum . . . butts.  . 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  19  specimens  of  Early  Amber 

sorghum _ ; . tops.. 

Average  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  in  juice  from  21  specimens  of  Early  Amber 

sorghum . butts.. 


Per  cent. 

73.  05 

74.  46 
72.  57 
76. 15 

71.67 

75.  22 
72.  73 
72. 13 
45. 17 
49.  89 
42.88 
45.  44 
42.  63 
44.50 

46.68 
50.58 

1.  0725 

1.  0708 

1.  0602 

1.0584 


1.  0753 
1.  0730 
1.0765 
1.0771 
16.  21 
16.81 
13. 85 
13.  82 
16. 91 
16.71 
17.  59 
16. 75 


26 


Per  cent. 


Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  tops,  79  specimens . .  72.  45 

Average  per  cent,  of  water  in  butts,  79  specimeES . . .  74.  51 

Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  tops,  50  specimens .  43.  90 

Average  per  cent,  of  juice  from  butts,  51  specimens  . .  4G.  90 

Average  per  cent,  of  solids  in  juice  from  tops,  77  specimens .  1G.  IS 

Average  per  cent,  of  solids  in  juice  from  butts,  80  sjjecimens .  1G.  92 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  tops,  84  specimens .  10.  71 

Average  specific  gravity  of  juice  from  butts,  84  specimens .  10. 70 


From  tbe  above  comparison  it  will  appear  that  there  exists  no  marked  difference  in 
the  amount  of  juice  present  in  tbe  upper  and  lower  halves  of  the  canes,  nor  in  the 
quality  of  this  juice  as  indicated  by  either  the  relative  specific  gravities  or  the  total 
amount  of  solid  matter  present  in  the  juices. 

But  by  reference  to  the  previous  tables,  giving  the  results  in  detail,  the  fact  will 
appear  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  sorghums  examined  that,  during  the  early  stages  of 
development  of  these  plants,  the  total  sugars  present  in  the  juices  is  comparatively 
low,  often  not  one-third  of  the  maximum  afterwards  found  in  the  plant,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  amount  of  sirup  possible  to  be  made  from  this  immature  cane  is  propor¬ 
tionately  less  than  that  which  the  same  stalks  would  yield  when  fully  matured. 

It  will  also  appear  that,  during  this  early  and  immature  state  of  the  plant,  the  rela¬ 
tive  amount  of  crystallizable  sugar  (sucrose)  as  compared  with  the  total  sugars  present 
is  much  greater  in  the  lower  half  of  the  canes.  This  condition  remains,  apparently, 
until  the  seed  has  reached  the  milky  state,  at  which  time  the  juices  in  both  parts  of 
the  plant  apj>ear  to  be  of  equal  value.  But  it  must  not  be  understood  that  the  maxi¬ 
mum  content  of  sugar  in  the  plant  has  been  reached  at  this  period  of  development, 
since,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  tables,  this  is  far  from  the  fact. 

From  this  period  in  the  plant’s  development  until  the  perfect  ripening  of  the  seed, 
the  juices  appear  to  uniformly  increase  in  their  content  of  crystallizable  sugar,  and  to 
decrease  in  their  content  of  uncrystallizable  sugar. 

Still  later  in  the  history  of  the  plant  there  appears  a  slight  deterioration  in  the  qual¬ 
ity  of  the  juice  from  the  lower  half  of  the  stalk,  and  it  is  found  generally  to  be  some¬ 
what  inferior  to  the  juice  from  the  upper  half. 

It  appears  probable  that  this  deterioration  of  the  juice  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
«ane  marks  the  incipient  stages  of  death  and  the  ultimate  decay  of  the  plant,  the  roots 
and  leaves  failing  in  their  office  to  supply  the  full  amount  of  nourishment  which  the 
plant  requires.  It  begins  to  feed  upon  itself,  so  to  speak,  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
at  this  period  the  off-shoots  from  the  upper  joints  of  the  stalk  begin  a  vigorous  growth 
and  appear  to  live  as  parasites  upon  the  parent  stalk. 

It  will  appear  also  that  at  the  first  examinations  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juices 
from  the  lower  half  of  the  cane  is  almost  invariably  greater  than  that  of  the  juices 
from  the  upper  halves,  and  that  an  equality  of  specific  gravity  appears  to  indicate  an 
equality  between  the  juices  in  their  content  of  sugar  not  only,  but  in  its  relative  pro¬ 
portions  of  sucrose  and  glucose. 

Proximate  analyses  have  been  made  of  the  seed  of  two  varieties  of  sorghum,  the 
early  amber  and  the  Chinese,  the  results  of  which  are  given  below.  It  will  be  seen 
that  this  seed  differs  but  little  in  composition  from  the  other  cereals,  and  closely 
resembles  corn,  and  it  will  doubtless  prove  valuable  as  food  for  farm  stock. 


Sorghum  seeds. 

*Early  amber. 

Chinese. 

Moisture . 

Fat . . . 

10.57 
1.  81 
4.  60 

1.  91 

2.  64 
7.  34 
1.10 

68.  55 
1.  48 

9.  93 
1.47 
3.  95 
2.  70 
2. 

6.  90 
.72 
70. 17 
1.  52 

Albumen,  insoluble  in  alcohol . 

Albumen,  soluble  in  alcohol . 

Starch,  color,  <fcc . 

Crude  fiber . 

100.  00 

100.  00 

Moisture  was  estimated  from  loss  by  drying  at  105°  C.  Ash,  by  simple  ignition; 
total  albuminoids  from  total  nitrogen  multiplied  by  6.25.  Under  “sugars”  is  given 

that  jmrtion  of  the  80  per  cent,  alcohol  extract  which  was  found  soluble  in  water. 
The  insoluble  portion  of  this  alcohol  extract  included  a  little  red  coloring  matter,  but 
otherwise  seemed  to  be  identical  with  the  “zein”  of  maize.  Gum  was  extracted  by 


27 


water,  after  use  of  ether  and  alcohol.  Fat  was  extracted  directly  from  tlu»  sample  by 
absolute  ether ;  it  was  yellowish,  semi-solid,  and  very  much  resembled  the  fat  simi¬ 
larly  extracted  from  corn.  Starch,  color,  &c.,  were  determined  by  difference.  In 
early  amber  there  was  found  (14.05  per  cent.,  and  in  Chinese  sorghum  64.74  per  cent, 
of  starch  by  titration,  with  Folding’s  solution)  of  an  acid  extract  made  after  extraction 
with  ether,  alcohol,  and  water. 

Crude  liber  is  that  portion,  ash  free,  which  still  remains  insoluble  after  treatment 
of  the  sample  with  ether,  alcohol,  water,  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  dilute  potassic 
hydrate.  It  is  usually  white  or  slightly  gray,  and  free  from  nitrogen. 

Proximate  analyses  have  also  been  made  of  the  scum  and  sediment  obtained  in  defe¬ 
cating  the  juice,  with  a  view  of  throwing  light  upon  the  chemical  character  of  this 
important  process. 

The  results  of  these  analyses  are  given  below. 


—  p  ■ .  ----- 

Liberian 
lime  pre¬ 
cipitate. 

Honduras 
lime  pre¬ 
cipitate. 

Honduras 

skimmings. 

Moisture . . . 

9.  77 
21.69 
17.  60 
10.  80 
-3.61 

6.  02 
22.  58 
-  5.  73 
2.  20 
Trace. 

7.  69 

7.  00 

8.  95 
43.  96 

3. 26 
11.40 
4.  55 
12.  71 
.48 
Trace. 

5. 72 

14.  30 
14.44 

15.  06 
5.  OS 

11.  10 
8.  05 
5.  58 
5.  49 
15.18 

Chlorophyll  and  wax . 

Sugars . 

Resins  and  trace  albumen . 

Gum .  . 

Albuminoids  . . . . . . 

Humus-like  substances,  diff . 

Crude  tiber . 

Starch  isomers . . . 

100.  00 

100.  00 

100.  00 

The  large  amount  of  ash  in  Liberian  lime  precipitate  and  Honduras  shimmings  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  considerable  clay,  which  had  been  used  to  hasten  the  clarifica¬ 
tion  of  the  juice.  There  was  little  or  no  clay  present  in  Honduras  lime  precipitate. 
The  claying  seems  mechanically  to  have  carried  down  a  large  proportion  of  the  albu¬ 
men  in  the  Liberian  lime  precipitate. 

The  very  great  difference  in  these  waste  products  is  probably  due  almost  wholly  to 
differences  in  the  manipulation  of  the  juices. 

Very  probably  there  exists  in  lime  precipitates  a  combined  organic  acid ;  this  will  be 
investigated  in  the  future. 

Whoever  may  detect  error  in  the  methods  employed,  or  in  the  results  stated,  will 
confer  a  favor  by  mentioning  the  same. 

It  is  certainly  most  desirable  that  these  experiments  be  continued  upon  a  larger 
scale,  and  with  at  least  a  dozen  varieties  of  sorghum  and  an  equal  number  of  varie¬ 
ties  of  sweet,  yellow,  and  white  corn. 

At  least  an  acre  of  each  variety  should  be  grown,  and  the  development  of  each 
should  be  watched  through  the  season,  and  when  the  proper  time  for  working  up  the 
crop  has  come,  let  the  acre  be  worked  up  for  sugar.  Such  an  experiment  would  require 
little  outlay  and  be  productive  of  invaluable  results.  It  would  require  at  least  three  or 
four  assistants  additional  in  the  chemical  laboratory  to  attend  to  the  continued  analy¬ 
ses  of  the  canes,  and  would  necessitate  a  somewhat  larger  apparatus  for  working  up 
the  crop. 

The  correspondence  addressed  to  this  division  upon  this  subject  of  sugar  has  steadily 
increased  until  it  requires  nearly  all  the  time  of  one  assistant  to  attend  to  it. 

THE  PERMANGANATE  PROCESS  FOR  THE  ESTIMATION  OF  SUGARS  IN  JUICES. 

1.  Preparation  of  the  juice. 

Usually  two  stalks  were  selected  for  analysis.  Their  maturity,  as  shown  by  the 
development  of  blossoms,  seeds,  and  the  color  and  condition  of  the  glumes,  was  re¬ 
corded.  Then  were  noted — 

a.  The  weight  of  the  unstripped  stalks. 

h.  The  weight  of  the  stripped  and  topped  stalks,  and,  by  difference,  the  weight  of 
leaves  and  tops. 

c.  The  average  length  and  diameter  of  the  stripped  stalks. 

These  stripped  stalks  were  then  divided  so  that  tops  and  butts  were  of  equal  weight. 
Then  was  found — 

d.  The  average  length  each  of  tops  and  butts.  The  tops  and  butts  were  then  sepa¬ 
rately  analyzed.  Each  by  itself  was  cut  finely  with  a  hatchet,  and  then  bruised  in 
an  iron  mortar.  The  bruised  mass  was  then  placed  in  a  small  bag,  and  submitted  to 
a  heavy  pressure  in  an  ordinary  iron  press. 


28 


The  expressed  juice  was  collected  and  weighed,  and  the  percentage  calculated  to 
the  unstripped  stalks  taken. 

The  juice  thus  obtained  usually  was  greenish  from  the  presence  of  chlorophyll.  As 
the  plant  matured,  the  color  of  the  juice^inclined  to  amber,  and  in  perfectly  ripe  stalks 
(especially  of  the  Early  Amber  variety)  the  color  was  red,  from  the  presence,  in  the 
central  portion  of  the  stalk,  of  a  red  coloring  matter  sparingly  soluble  in  ether,  readily 
dissolved  by  80  jier  cent,  alcohol. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  juice  was  determined  usually  by  a  piknometer.  It  was 
found  that  the  readings  given  by  an  accurate  hydrometer  accorded  well  with  the 
specific  gravity  indicated  by  weight,  if  the  juice  was  previously  allowed  to  stand  for 
about  half  an  hour,  to  allow  included  air  to  escape. 

A  weighed  portion  of  the  juice  was  dried,  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  100°  C,  until  two 
successive  weights  showed  but  little  variation  ;  the  percentage  of  residue  thus  found 
was  stated  as  total  solids  in  juice.  These  figures  can  be  regarded  only  as  fair  approxi¬ 
mations,  for  chemists  are  well  aware  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  perfect  desicca¬ 
tion  of  saccharine  juices.  In  this  connection,  however, *the  results  are  valuable  as 
checks  upon  the  sugar  determinations. 

For  determination  of  sugars  in  the  juice  100  c.  c.  were  taken,  and  made  in  every  case 
to  1*25  c.  c.  by  addition  of  solution  of  subacetate  of  lead  and  water.  Among  other  sub¬ 
stances  precipitated  by  the  treatment  were  chlorophyll,  albumenoid  matter,  gum,  and 
lead  salts  of  the  inorganic  acids  of  the  ash. 

The  liqid  was  filtered  perfectly  clear  through  dry  paper,  and  was  sometimes  colorless 
and  sometimes  amber.  Every  10  c.  c.  of  this  liquid  represented  8  c.  c.  of  the  original 
juice. 

For  the  determination  of  inverted  sugar,  10  c.  c.  of  this  filtered  liquor  were  taken, 
and  for  sucrose  5  c.  c. 

The  portion  for  glucose  was  treated  with  considerable  excess  of  Fehling’s  solution, 
and  carefully  heated  on  the  water-bath,  a  thermometer  being  inserted  in  the  liquid, 
which  was  not  allowed  to  rise  above  75°  C.  At  this  temperature  perfectly  pure  sucrose 
does  not  reduce  Fehling’s  solution  in  the  least. 

The  portion  for  sucrose  was  inverted  by  boiling  half  an  hour  with  slight  excess  of 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  The  inverted  sugar  thus  formed  was  then  treated  with  large 
excess  of  Fehling’s  solution,  exactly  as  above  described,  except  that  it  was  not  neces¬ 
sary  to  keep  the  temperature  lower  than  the  heat  of  the  water-bath  (100°  C.). 

The  precipitated  red  suboxide  of  copper  was  then  thoroughly  washed  with  hot 
water  by  decantation  and  filtration  (without  aspiration  usually)  through  fine  paper. 
It  was  then  dissolved  in  an  acid  (sulphuric)  solution  of  ferric  sulphate,  and  the  amount 
of  ferrous  salt  determined  by  titration  with  potassium  permanganate. 

This  method  for  determining  glucose  depends  upon  the  following  facts  : 

1.  That  two  molecules  (360  parts  by  weight)  of  glucose  (C6  H[2  06)  will  reduce  from 
Fehling’s  solution  five  molecules  of  cuprous  oxide  (5  Cu2  O). 

2.  That  the  five  molecules  of  cuprous  oxide  thus  precipitated  will  reduce  in  acid 
sol.  five  molecules  of  ferric  sulphate  (Fe2  (S  04)  3)  to  form  ten  molecules  (1,520  parts 
by  Aveiglit)  of  ferrous  sulphate  (Fe.  S  04)  as  is  explained  by  the  follo  wing  equation : 

S  5  Cu2  O  ),55  Fe2  (S  04)3  \  ,  $  5  H3  S  04  ?  U0  Cu  S  04  \  , 

\  715  parts  $ '  \  2,000  parts  $  '  \  490  parts  (  \  1,595  parts  ^  _r 

(  10  Fe  S  04  \  ,  $  5  H2  O  I 
l  1,520  parts  )  '  \  90  parts  $ 

The  ten  molecules  of  ferrous  sulphate  thus  formed  will  decolorizo  one  molecule 
(316.2  parts  by  weight)  of  potassium  permanganate  (K2  Mn2  08),  thus: 

$  10  Fe  S  04  \  ,  5  Iv2  Mna  08  {  ,  $  8  H2  S  04  )  <  5  Fe2  (S  04)3  \  ,  $  2  Mn  S  04  \  , 

>  1,520  parts  (  '  )  316.2  parts  s  )  784  parts  $  (  2,000  parts  302  parts  $  ~ 

$  K2  S  04  )  ,  J  8H20  \ 

l  174.2  parts  5  1  (  144  parts  $ 

By  following  this  explanation,  it  appears  that  two  molecules  of*  glucose  are  exactly 
represented  by  one  molecule  of  potassium  permanganate,  as  will  appear  from  the  fol¬ 
lowing,  by  omitting  the  second  and  third  members  of  the  series.  Thus: 

S  2  C6  H12  Oo  <>  5  Cu2  O  )  5  10  Fe  S  04  )  _1  $  K2  Mn2  08  ] 

l  360  parts  $  c  715  parts  )  )  1,520  parts  )  (  316.2  parts  ) 

In  other  words,  316.2  parts  by  weight  of  potassium  permanganate  are  equivalent  to 
360  parts  of  glucose,  or  one  part  of  permanganate  corresponds  to  1.1385  parts  of 
glucose.  If,  then,  the  amount  of  permanganate  decolorized  be  multiplied  by  1.1385  it 
will  correctly  represent  the  amount  of  glucose  present.  So  much  for  the  theoretical 
explanation.  In  practice  it  is  found  that  each  chemist  must  determine  for  himselt  his 
titration  error  by  estimations  made  upon  sugar  of  known  purity. 


29 


This  individual  error  is  due  to  the  difficulty  in  determining  the  exact  end  reaction; 
experience  has  shown,  in  the  course  of  this  work,  that  the  point  where  the  color  of  the 
permanganate  barely  appears  in  the  rapidly  agitated  liquid  is  nearly  identical  with 
the  true  end  reaction.  Some  operators  carry  the  titration  a  little  further  until  a  faint 
rose  tint  is  permanent  for  about  two  seconds.  Each  man  who  has  done  this  work  has 
carefully  determined  his  titration  error,  and  all  figures  submitted  have  been  corrected 
therefor.  The  iron  solution  works  best  if  very  strongly  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid.  The  most  convenient  strength  for  the  permanganate  solution  is  4.392  grams  to 
the  liter,  equal  to  .005  grams  glucose  for  each  cubic  centimeter. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  these  determinations  it  was  not  considered  necessary  to  thor¬ 
oughly  wash  the  precipitated  suboxide  of  copper  before  dissolving  it  in  the  ferric 
sulphate  solution.  Carefully  performed  experiments,  however,  showed  that  washing 
was  best,  and  that  the  results  obtained  on  unwashed  suboxide  would  equal  those  on 
the  washed  if  multiplied  by  .9676  for  glucose  and  by  .9438  for  sucrose. 

As  the  results  of  much  careful  work  it  appears  that,  if  the  suboxide  be  well  washed, 
and  if  each  operator  determines  his  titration  error,  the  determination  of  glucose  by 
this  method  is  very  accurate. 

The  amount  of  glucose  found  was  divided  by  the  weight  of  8  c.  c.  of  the  juice  ana¬ 
lyzed  for  percentage  of  glucose.  The  sucrose  was  found  by  subtracting  from  the  total 
glucose  after  inversion  the  amount  originally  present  in  4  c.  c.  of  the  juice,  and  mul¬ 
tiplying  the  remaining  glucose  by  .95.  The  percentage  was  then  calculated  in  the 
usual  way. 

Respectfully, 


PETER  COLLIER, 
Chemist,  Agricultural  Department. 


MACHINERY. 

Replying  to  your  inquiry  relative  to  the  different  kinds  of  machinery 
for  making  sugar  from  sorghum,  I  would  remark  that  the  juices  of  the 
various  kinds  of  sorghum  examined  by  the  department  (and  the  same 
is  true  without  doubt  of  all  varieties  of  sorghum)  are  so  nearly  similar 
to  the  juice  of  the  tropical  sugar-cane  ( Saccharum  officinarxm)  that  the 
same  machinery  and  the  same  processes  will  undoubtedly  be  as  useful 
in  the  manipulation  of  the  one  as  of  the  other. 

Heretofore  sorghum  has  been  grown  for  the  purpose  of  making  sirup 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  country  where  corn  would  grow;  and  in  this 
manufacture  a  certain  class  of  machinery,  known  as  sorgo-machinery, 
has  become  general.  This  machinery  is  simple  and  strong  in  structure, 
and  as  now  made  consists  ordinarily  of  three  rollers,  which  are  either 
vertical  or  horizontal,  and  are  driven  by  horse,  steam,  or  other  power. 
Having  a  capacity  for  work  in  proportion  to  the  power  employed  and 
the  size  of  the  mill,  and  varying  but  little  in  construction,  it  is  manu¬ 
factured  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  can  be  obtained  at  low 
rates  at  -almost  any  large  machine-shop. 

The  cuts  here  presented  in  illustration  of  the  leading  classes  of  sugar¬ 
making  machinery  have  been  kindly  furnished  by  two  or  three  houses 
largely  engaged  in  the  manufacture;  but  machinery  of  like  character 
is  made  in  almost  every  county  in  the  United  States  in  which  there  is  a 
large  iron-working  establishment.  Whatever  difference  of  opinion  may 
exist  relative  to  the  comparative  efficiency  of  the  several  mills  and 
pans  on  the  market  must  be  decided  by  the  individuals  who  wish  to  pur¬ 
chase.  They  will  not  and  need  not  necessarily  be  confined  to  any  special 
kind,  as  there  are  many  desirable  sorts  for  sale  throughout  the  country. 
By  way  of  comparison  the  illustrations  embrace  some  that  represent  the 
primitive  methods  of  sugar-making  among  the  Hindoos  and  other 
nations. 

The  cost  of  a  small  outfit  necessary  to  work  up  the  product  of  the 
ten  to  fifty  acres  of  sorghum  that  one  or  two  farmers  might  raise  in  a 
neighborhood,  would  be  from  $150  to  $500,  while  mills  required  in 
larger  operations  would,  of  course,  necessitate  a  proportional  increase  in 


30 


expenditure.  The  plant  or  apparatus  commonly  employed  at  this  time 
in  the  manufacture  of  sorghum  syrup  consists  of  a  small  three-roller 
mill,  for  expressing  the  juice;  one  or  more  tanks  for  receiving  it  and 
heating  it  to  a  point  where  lime  or  other  defecating  agents  may  be  used 
(if  it  be  thought  necessary  to  use  them  at  all),  and  a  shallow  pan  or 
two  for  evaporation.  However,  much  fuller  information  on  this  subject 
than  I  can  now  give  will  be  found  in  the  proceedings  of  the  convention 
of  the  Northwestern  Sugar  Growers7  Association,  before  referred  to. 

In  the  practical  manufacture  of  sugar,  in  a  large  way,  from  sorghum 
and  corn-stalks,  it  will  be  found  necessary,  I  have  no  doubt,  to  estab¬ 
lish  large  central  factories  or  mills,  having  the  same  relations  to  this  in¬ 
dustry  as  do  the  grist-mills  of  a  neighborhood,  to-day,  to  wheat  and  corn. 
Mills  of  this  character  should  be  capable  of  handling  at  least  500  acres 
of  sorghum  or  corn  during  one  season,  and  I  am  informed  by  manufact¬ 
urers  of  machinery  who  have  considered  the  subject  with  care  that 
such  mills  may  be  built  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  $12,500,  and  that  pos¬ 
sibly  this  amount  would  also  afford  a  margin  for  a  fair  working  capital 
for  the  operations  of  a  single  season.  This  central  factory  would  be  able 
to  work  up  not  only  the  cane  from  500  acres  during  a  season,  but  also  to 
rework  into  sugar  the  product  of  the  small  mills  established  at  greater  or 
less  distances  around  it  that  had  carried  their  operations  no  further  than 
the  manufacture  of  concentrated  sirup,  weighing,  say,  ten  pounds  to  the 
gallon. 

Probably  it  will  be  more  profitable  to  the  average  farmer  to  simply 
convert  the  juice  of  his  stalks  into  a  sirup  and  sell  it  as  such  to  a  mill 
prepared  for  making  sugar  in  a  large  way,  with  vacuum-pans  and 
centrifugals,  than  it  would  be  to  work  his  cane  into  sugar  himself.  For 
although  good  sugar  has  been  made  during  the  past  season  by  open-pan 
evaporation  by  small  farmers  in  many  parts  of  the  couutry,  and  made 
at  a  profit,  yet  the  time  must  come  when  the  competition  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  sugar  will  be  so  great  as  to  reduce  the  profits  materially,  and 
to  demand  the  closest  economy  in  all  the  various  processes  of  cultivation 
and  subsequent  manipulation.  Until,  however,  the  supply  shall  begin 
to  equal  our  home  demand  there  will  probably  be  a  very  fair  profit  to 
the  average  farmer  with  his  small  mill  and  open-pan  evaporation  in 
making  sugar,  molasses,  and  vinegar ;  for  vinegar  is  one  of  the  products 
of  this  industry  which  is  of  importance,  the  skiinmings  and  other  refuse 
making  an  excellent  article  that  finds  ready  sale  at  remunerative  prices. 

The  entire  cost  from  the  first  breaking  up  of  the  land,  and  carefully 
counting  every  expenditure  at  the  current  cash  prices  of  the  country  for 
labor  and  other  things,  the  entire  cost  of  production  in  the  Western  States, 
the  jrnst  season,  of  a  gallon  of  dense  sirup,  weighing  say  13  pounds,  did 
not  exceed  16§  cents  on  an  average.  (It  is  quite  possible  to  produce  it 
at  less  cost.)  These  13  pounds  of  sirup,  if  properly  managed,  should 
give  from  6  or  8  pounds  of  sugar;  and,  if  handled  by  the  centrifugal, 
the  sugar  can  be  separated  from  the  sirup  at  a  fraction  of  one  cent,  per 
pound. 

I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Thoms,  an  experienced  sugar  boiler,  employed 
last  season  at  the  Crystal  Lake  Sugar  Works,  Illinois,  at  which  were 
made  many  thousand  pounds  of  good  sugar,  that  with  trimmed  cane 
delivered  at  the  mill  door,  he  can  make  and  deliver  the  sugar  at  the 
mill  for  1J  cents  per  pound,  a  statement  corroborated  by  Mr.  Russell, 
of  Janesville,  Wis.,  late  superintendent  of  the  Crystal  Lake  Factory 
during  the  season  of  1879. 

The  trimmed  stalks  can  be  bought  for  from  $2  to  $1  per  ton  de¬ 
livered  at  the  mill;  and  the  farmer  can  very  well  afford  to  deliver  them 


31 


for  this  price,  as  lie  can  raise  from  15  to  30  tons  per  acre,  and  obtain 
besides  a  crop  of  seed  equal  in  value  to  a  fair  crop  of  oats  from  the 
same  number  of  acres,  to  say  nothing  of  the  large  supply  of  excellent 
blade  fodder.  If  we  assume  20  tons  of  fetalks  per  acre  (and  it  is  not  too 
high  an  estimate  for  good  land),  the  yield  per  acre  would  be  from  $60 
to  880  delivered;  and  if  the  haul  was  not  too  long,  this  would  be  ex¬ 
ceedingly  profitable  to  the  grower.  If  the  haul  should  be  so  long  as  to 
preclude*  a  profit,  then  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  have  a 
small  mill  to  reduce  the  juice  to  a  dense  sirup,  as  has  been  described, 
and  to  market  it  at  the  large  factory  in  that  condition. 

Although  a  fair  measure  of  success  *  has  rewarded  the  efforts  of 
many  who  were  engaged,  the  past  season,  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  sorghum,  yet  to  obtain  sugar  uniformly  and  profitably  from  the 
juice  of  the  various  sugar-producing  plants,  under  differing  condi¬ 
tions  of  soil  and  seasons,  experience  is  requisite  as  well  as  theoretic 
knowledge. 

Instruction  in  this  matter  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  hence  it 
is  desirable  that  the  Department  of  Agriculture  should  be  authorized 


*  The  following  table  is  an  epitome  of  the  reports  received,  by  the  department  from 
those  to  whom  the  seed  of  the  Early  Amber  cane  was  sent.  Many  of  those  reporting 
were  entirely  unaccustomed  to  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  and  consequently  were  only 
partially  successful.  Others  had  the  experience  of  some  years  to  aid  them,  and  from 
these  the  reports  are  uniformly  favorable,  and  some  remarkably  favorable.  A  yield 
of  at  least  200  gallons  of  dense  sirup  per  acre  (worth  40  cents  to  50  cents  per  gallon) 
it  would  seem  reasonable  to  expect  as  the  result  of  good  seasons,  good  soil,  good  cul¬ 
tivation,  and  good  milling. 


State. 


Alabama . 

Arkansas . 

Colorado . 

California . 

Delaware . 

Dakota  Territory 

Florida . 

Georgia . 

Illinois . 

Indiana . 

Indian  Territory. 

Iowa . 

Kansas . 

Kentucky . 

Maryland . 

Michigan . 

Minnesota . 

Mississippi . 

Missouri . 

Nebraska . 

New  Jersey . 

New  York . 

North  Carolina  . 

Ohio . 

Pennsylvania . . . . 
South  Carolina... 

Tennessee . 

Texas . 

Utah  Territory  .. 

Virginia . J. .. 

West  Virginia ... 
Wisconsin . 


Average  number 
gallons  per  acre. 

Average  value. 

Number  of  people 
making  sugar. 

Price  per  pound. 

Highest  yield  per 
acre. 

Lowest  yield  per 
acre. 

1 

122 

$0  50 

192 

60 

117 

48 

256 

52 

1 10 

90 

124 

109 

196 

50 

1 

200 

192 

1  25 

112 

66 

168 

56 

145 

30 

240 

50 

104 

48 

. 

192 

42 

192 

46 

8 

$0  10 

325 

46 

127 

40 

3 

400 

25 

127 

75 

200 

82 

130 

52 

16 

350 

60 

114 

49 

7 

300 

25 

119 

39 

2 

244 

31 

111 

60 

150 

40 

166 

51 

2 

480 

75 

138 

56 

5 

376 

43 

111 

49 

500 

32 

135 

40 

30 

300 

48 

124 

55 

3 

300 

50 

147 

_ 

2 

200 

90 

r 

175 

75 

2 

214 

136 

163 

57 

3 

176 

40 

151 

48 

9 

453 

50 

138 

50 

it»; 

100 

94 

50 

136 

25 

138 

41 

3 

392 

40 

114 

57 

11 

361 

30 

117 

62 

1 

150 

96 

113 

55 

3 

180 

50 

127 

51 

8 

ii 

216 

60 

149 

51 

17 

260 

60 

128 

50 

...... 

10.5 

500 

25 

32 


and  empowered  to  make  such  experiments  (at  various  central  points, 
easily  reached  by  those  who  are  interested)  as  will  practically  instruct 
the  people  in  all  the  various  processes  and  machinery  heretofore  suc¬ 
cessfully  used,  and  to  discover,  if  possible,  other  and  better  methods  of 
speedily  obtaining  the  object  in  view,  viz.,  the  production  of  our  own 
sugar  and  the  consequent  saving  of  the  large  sum  annually  paid  for  for¬ 
eign  sugar.  The  passage  of  Senate  bill  No.  1514  (referred  to  me)  would 
enable  the  Department  to  institute  important  experiments  in  at  least 
three  localities  that  would  go  far  to  determine  in  a  scientific  manner  the 
questions  in  the  way  of  a  speedy  solution  of  the  problem. 

CONSUMPTION  AND  PRODUCTION. 


Of  your  several  inquiries  there  remains  to  be  considered  only  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  statistics  relative  to  the  consumption  and  production  of  sugar  in 
the  United  States. 

Perhaps  I  cannot  make  better  reply  to  this  inquiry  than  has  already 
been  made  in  my  annual  report  for  1878.  In  that  report  the  consump¬ 
tion  from  I860  to  1878  inclusive  for  the  entire  country  is  given  as  follows : 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


1866 . 

1867 . 

.  1,012,799,904 

.  870,  526,  017 

1873 

1874 

1868 . 

.  1,195,120,413 

1875 

1869 . 

.  1,309,847,125 

1876 

1870 . 

.  1,306,202,065 

1877 

1871 . 

.  1,327,456,300 

1878 

1872 . 

.  1,565,760,616 

1,525,974,971 
1,705, 193,954 
1, 859, 159, 674 
1. 604, 947, 164 
1,  731,  573.  553 
1,991,744.160 


For  the  same  years  the  production  of  cane  sugar  in  the  United  States 
was  as  follows : 


Pounds. 

1866  .  47,150,000 

1867  .  43,294,050 

1868  .  96,894,400 

1869  .  100,153,500 

1870  .  166,613,150 

1871  . 147,730,150 

1872  .  124,798,000 


Pounds. 

1873  .  102.922,700 

1874  .  134,504,691 

1875  .  163,418,070 

1876  .  190,672.570 

1877  .  147,101,941 

1878  .  257,094,160 

1879  .  210,670,000 


In  addition  to  this  amount  of  sugar  from  cane  there  were  produced, 
from  1866  to  1877  inclusive,  459,031,151  pounds  of  maple  sugar. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  for  the  year  1879  was  within  a  small  frac¬ 
tion  of  40  pounds  per  capita  of  our  population,  being  an  increase  of 
nearly  10  pounds  per  capita  since  the  decade  of  1860-7 0  and  of  15  pounds 
since  the  decade  1850-’60. 

From  these  and  other  tables  in  our  possession,  it  is  found  that  over 
and  above  the  amount  of  all  sugars  produced  in  the  United  States  since 
1849  we  have  consumed  during  the  same  period  not  less  than  eighteen 
hundred  and  odd  millions  of  dollars’  worth  of  foreign  sugars  and  their 
allied  products,  or  an  amount  of  sugar  more  than  equal  in  value  to  all 
the  precious  metals  mined  iu  the  country  since  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California,  and  nearly  equal  to  the  public  debt  at  the  present  time.  Es¬ 
timating  the  population  of  the  United  States  at  50,000,000,  and  multi¬ 
plying  this  number  by  the  pounds  (40)  per  capita  consumed  in  1879,  we 
have  for  the  consumption  of  that  year  a  total  of  2,000,000,000  pounds. 
Of  this  amount  1,743,560,000  pounds,  or  more  than  80  per  cent.,  besides 
38,395,575  gallons  of  molasses  (the  whole  valued  at  $75,017,145,  or,  duty 
added,  $114,516,745),  were  imported.  To  bring  the  vast  amount  of 


33 


sugar  imported  into  the  country  within  more  easy  comprehension,  we 
have  only  to  imagine  five  vessels  of  nearly  500  tons  each  and  loaded 
with  sugar  arriving  daily  at  our  ports  each  day  in  the  year.  To  convey 
the  whole  amount  consumed  would  require  five  trains  of  twenty  cars 
each  starting  daily  for  one  thousand  days. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully, 

WM.  G.  LE  DUC, 

Commissioner. 


A. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  SUGAR  PLANTS. 

Of  the  following  plates  the  first- four  represent  varieties  of  sugar-cane  grown,  during 
the  past  season,  on  the  grounds  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  and 
used  in  the  experiments  of  the  Chemical  Division,  as  detailed  in  Professor  Collier’s 
accompanying  report.  The  drawings  were  made  by  a  gentleman  employed  in  the 
department.  The  designations  given  them  are  somewhat  different  from  those  current 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  but  are  conformed  to  what  are  believed  to  be  the  most 
authoritative  standards. 

Plate  I  represents  the  Early  Amber  sugar-cane,  the  favorite  variety  with  planters  in 
Minnesota  and  the  Northwest.  What  is  now  called  the  Minnesota  Early  Amber  cane 
is  claimed  as  an  improvement  upon  the  Early  Amber  varieties  growing  formerly  in 
different  parts  of  Minnesota,  by  Hon.  Seth  M.  Kenny  and  Mr.  C.  F.  Miller,  of  that 
State.  Acting  on  the  theory  that  cane  in  a  high  latitude  will  degenerate  if  grown 
continuously  from  its  own  seed,  these  gentlemen  selected  the  finest  specimens  of  seed 
from  their  own  crops  aud  sent  them  to  a  southern  latitude  to  be  grown.  The  seed 
product  of  this  southern  growth  was  returned  to  Minnesota.  By  this  alternation  of 
seed,  and  by  other  intelligent  processes  of  culture,  they  have  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  new  and  permanent  variety,  which  they  claim  to  be  more  productive  in  weight  of 
cane  aud  to  contain  a  higher  per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter  than  any  other  grown  in 
that  State.  This  claim  needs  to  be  substantiated  by  more  careful  and  extended  ob¬ 
servations  before  it  can  be  said  to  bo  fully  established. 

Messrs.  Kenny  and  Miller  describe  the  Early  Amber  cane  as  presenting  “the  char¬ 
acteristics  of  both  sorgo  and  iinphee.”  By  sorgo  they  mean  the  Chinese  sorgo  (Plate 
II),  and  by  impliee,  the  White  Liberian  (Plato  III),  and  its  kindred  African  varieties. 
The  Early  Amber  receives  its  name  from  its  early  ripening  and  from  the  bright  amber 
color  which  characterizes  its  sirup  when  properly  made.  It  is  very  rich  in  saccharino 
matter.  When  scientifically  treated  its  products  are  destitute  of  that  peculiar 
“  sorghum”  taste  formerly  complained  of;  the  flavor  is  very  similar  to  that  of  pure 
honey.  The  sirup  readily  granulates  and  yields  sugar  equal  to  the  best  ribbon  cano 
of  Louisiana. 

The  Early  Amber  cane  on  the  department  grounds  did  not  grow  quite  so  tall  as  the 
White  Liberian.  Its  seed-heads  were  of  moderate  fullness  and  of  very  dark  color. 

Plate  II  shows  the  Chinese  sorgo  cane  grown  on  the  department  grounds.  Its 
height  is  about  that  of  the  Early  Amber.  Its  seed-heads  are  fuller  and  more  compact 
and  somewhat  resemble  a  head  of  sumac  ;  hence  the  synonym  “  sumac  cane.”  It  is 
also  known  as  “  Chinese  cane.” 

Plate  III  represents  the  White  Liberian  cane  grown  on  the  department  grounds. 
This  variety  is  rather  taller  than  the  Early  Amber.  The  stalk  curves  at  the  top,  leav¬ 
ing  the  head  pendent ;  hence  the  synonym  “  Gooseneck.”  It  is  also  styled  a  variety 
of  the  White  Implieo.  The  seed-heads  are  shorter,  more  compact,  and  of  lighter  color 
th  an  the  Early  Amber. 

Plate  IV  shows  the  Honduras  cane  grown  on  the  department  grounds.  It  grows 
about  one-half  taller  than  either  of  the  above  varieties.  Its  seed-top  is  of  reddish 
brown  and  spreading  ;  hence  its  synonym  “  Sprangle  Top.”  It  is  also  called  Masto¬ 
don  ”  and  “  Honey  cane.” 


B. 

MINNESOTA  CANE  GROWERS’  CONVENTION. 

A  numerous  and  intelligent  convention  of  the  Eaxly  Amber  cane  growers  and  manu¬ 
facturers  of  Minnesota  was  held  at  Minneapolis,  January  22,  1880.  The  Commissioner 
had  the  pleasure  of  attending  this  convention  and  secured  a  phonographic  report  of  its 
proceedings.  As  it  embraced  men  of  scientific  attainments  and  of  specific  ucquaint- 

3  AC 


34 


ance  with  this  new  branch  of  productive  industry,  the  discussions  were  remarkable 
for  the  vast  number  of  facts  and  principles  already  accumulated  in  their  experience. 
Of  these  it  is  proposed  to  furnish,  here,  an  abstract  showing  the  drift  of  opinion  upon 
all  the  points  of  culture  and  manufacture. 

SOIL. 

There  were  some  differences  in  the  opinions  expressed  as  to  the  availability  of  new 
laud  and,  as  usual  in  such  cases,  experiences  varied.  Some  having  expressed  the  fear 
that  new  land  will  impart  a  strong  flavor  to  the  cane-sirup,  Mr.  Wiley,  who  had  large 
experience  in  both  culture  and  manufacture,  emphatically  denied  the  fact.  He  said 
that  while  old  land  might  produce  a  sirup  of  brighter  color  it  was  not  at  all  better  in 
taste.  An  advantage  in  using  new  timber  land  is  found  in  the  small  amount  of  cul¬ 
tivation  required.  Costly  culture  on  old  land  will  not  pay  in  opposition  to  cheap 
culture  on  new  laud.  Mr.  Wiley  had  paid  as  high  as  $15  per  acre  for  hoeing.  New 
land  is  comparatively  free  from  foul  seed  and  consequently  less  liable  to  a  troublesome 
growth  of  weeds. 

On  the  other  hand  Colonel  Coleman,  of  the  Saint  Louis  Rural  World,  and  others 
contended  that  old  land  required  less  cultivation  and  produced  better  results.  It 
was  suggested  that  if  it  were  necessary  to  clear  old  land  of  weeds  or  to  fertilize  it 
with  barn-yard  manure,  a  crop  of  corn  should  be  grown  upon  it  before  planting  the 
cane.  The  general  opinion  was  in  favor  of  a  sandy  upland  soil,  well  drained,  but  not 
freshly  manured. 

In  regard  to  manuring,  facts  were  alleged  to  show  that  it  spoiled  the  flavor  of  the 
sirup.  A  farmer  had  selected  for  his  cane  patch  an  old  cow-yard.  The  stalks  were 
tall  and  luxuriant,  but  the  sirup  would  nearly  “take  off'  the  skin  of  the  mouth. ” 

The  great  majority  of  opinion  was  in  favor  of  the  indefinite  repetition  of  this  crop 
on  the  same  soil.  The  president  of  the  convention  mentioned  the  case  of  a  neighbor 
who  had  cultivated  the  same  ground  most  successfullv  for  seven  vears  without 
deterioration,  his  product  ranging  from  250  to  300  gallons  of  sirup  per  acre.  Mr.  Day 
and  Mr.  Dyer,  of  Hastings,  corroborated  this  opinion  from  their  own  experience.  The 
latter  thought  that  his  continued  crops  improved  not  only  in  quantity  but  also  in 
quality. 

The  soil  required  for  the  cane  is  not  necessarily  very  rich.  A  gentleman  planted 
several  knolls,  too  poor  for  wheat,  in  cane,  and  realized  200  gallons  per  acre  of  excel¬ 
lent  sirup. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  GROUND. 

The  general  opinion  was  in  favor  of  fall  plowing.  Mr.  Farmer  plows  in  August 
putting  the  plow  to  the  beam.  This  caused  all  foul  seed  and  especially  pigeon  grass 
to  germinate  in  the  fall  and  to  be  killed  by  winter  freezing.  Another  advantage  of 
fall  plowing  was  that  the  crop  was  less  liable  to  injury  from  droughts  in  the  early 
season.  Mr.  Bozarth,  of  Iowa,  after  twenty-one  years’  experience  in  raising  cane  was 
decidedly  in  favor  of  fall  plowing.  In  one  case  a  portion  of  his  cane  patch,  replowed 
in  spring,  yielded  but  half  as  much  sirup  as  that  which  had  been  only  fall  plowed. 
On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  E.  A.  Chapman,  of  Windham,  had  “  demonstrated  that  a  very 
large  crop  of  cane  can  be  raised  the  first  year  on  the  open  prairie  and  at  the  first 
breakage.”  He  had  “broken  2  acres  with  the  La  Dow  harrow,  harrowing  it  com¬ 
pletely,  and  it  produced  the  best  cane  out  of  5  acres.”  It  was  planted  June  1,  on 
black,  loam  soil.  He  believes  that  with  the  La  Dow  harrow  “large  crops  can  be 
raised  on  new  breakings.”  “It  did  the  work  so  well  that  several  farmers  got  down 
on  their  knees  to  look  at  the  soil ;  it  looked  so  much  like  old  soil.”  Those  who  practiced 
fall  plowing  were  careful  to  stir  the  ground  in  the  spring  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds. 
Mr.  Farmer,  when  the  ground  becomes  sufficiently  warm  in  the  spring,  goes  over  it 
with  the  Beaver  Dam  seeder  and  then  with  the  drag  and  roller.  This  treatment  ef¬ 
fectually  disposes  of  the  grass,  which  point  was  generally  considered  of  first  impor¬ 
tance. 

TIME  OF  PLANTING. 

There  was  some  discussion  on  this  point.  The  drift  of  opinion  was  expressed  by  the 
following  resolution  : 

“ Resolved,  That  the  cane  be  planted  as  early  as  it  is  possible  to  work  the  ground 
properly,  avoiding  late  frosts.” 

The  ground  should  be  well  warmed  before  the  seed  is  placed  in  it.  In  Minnesota 
the  average  seeding  time  is  in  the  fore  part  of  May,  though  several  growers  had  been 
successful  with  plantings  still  earlier.  The  president  of  the  convention  thought  that 
planting  should  not  be  quite  so  early  on  ground  impregnated  with  grass  seed.  Mr. 
Wiley  advised  against  planting  till  the  season  was  warm  enough  to  germinate  the 
seed  quickly.  He  had  had  later  plantings  which  produced  better  than  some  earlier 
ones.  A  late  spring  frost  might  cut  down  early  plantings  and  before  they  grew  again 
the  pigeon  grass  was  apt  to  start  up  profusely.  Mr.  Wood  had  seen  a  field  of  cane. 


35 


some  8  or  10  inches  higher  than  a  neighboring  field.  He  found  that  in  the  former  case 
the  seed  had  lain  in  the  ground  all  winter  and  the  latter  had  been  planted  early  in 
spring.  Experience  and  discretion  were  considered  requisite  to  settle  for  each  locality 
the  exact  time  of  planting  as  they  are  in  all  other  cultures. 


VARIETIES  OF  SORGIIUM. 


In  a  more  southern  latitude  the  cane  grower  may  have  considerable  range  of  choice 
between  different  varieties,  but  for  a  locality  so  far  north  as  Minnesota,  the  Early  Am¬ 
ber,  ripening  within  the  productive  season,  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  relied  upon. 
The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  General  Le  Due,  by  request,  gave  some  very  inter¬ 
esting  facts  in  regard  to  the  experiments  with  different  sugar  plants  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  chemist  of  the  department.  The  Early  Amber  cane  was  tested  July  18,  when 
the  seed-licad  was  just  out,  <md  showed  3.77  per  cent,  of  glucose  and  4.43  per  cent,  of 
sucrose.  It  was  again  tested  August  16,  29  days  afterwards,  and  found  to  contain  but 
1.54  per  cent,  of  glucose,  while  the  sucrose  had  risen  to  14.67  per  cent.  Here  was  indi¬ 
cated  a  most  important  chemical  change,  in  which  not  only  the  sucrose  was  enlarged, 
but  over  half  of  the  grape  sugar  or  glucose  changed  to  cane  sugar  or  sucrose.  A  third 
examination,  September  16,  31  days  afterwards,  when  the  seed  was  ripe,  hard,  and 
dry,  showed  a  still  further  enlargement  of  the  sucrose  to  15.95  per  cent.,  and  a  still 
further  absorption  of  the  glucose,  of  which  0.65  per  cent,  was  detected  by  analysis. 
Another  examination,  not  long  afterwards  and  just  following  a  severe  frost,  showed 
little  or  no  change,  the  sucrose  had  increased  to  17  percent,  and  the  glucose  to  1.00. 
These  experimental  results  place  the  Early  Amber  almost  on  a  j>ar  with  the  best 
Louisiana  cane. 

The  departmental  experiments  included  several  other  varieties  of  sorghum  and  other 
sugar  plants.  The  Chinese  cane  was  examined  at  the  same  times  that  the  Early  Am¬ 
ber,  and  gave  the  following  results.  When  the  seed-head  was  just  out,  there  was  5.55 
per  cent,  of  glucose  and  but  1.85  per  cent,  of  sucrose  ;  when  the  seed  was  hard  and 
dry, there  were  developed  1.85  per  cent,  of  glucose  and  13.90  of  sucrose;  after  the  frost, 
the  glucose  had  enlarged  to  1.85  and  the  sucrose  had  declined  to  13.10.  The  White 
Liberian  cane  showed  its  maximum  of  sucrose  15.20  per  cent.,  and  its  minimum  of  glu¬ 
cose  0.95  per  cent.,  when  its  seeds  were  dry.  The  Honduras,  before  the  seed-head  was 
out,  gave  5.13  per  cent,  of  glucose  and  1.20  per  cent,  of  sucrose;  when  the  seed  was 
hardening,  its  glucose  had  fallen  to  1.30  per  cent,  and  its  sucrose  had  risen  to  15.10. 

The  Louisiana  cane  of  1879  gave  a  maximum  of  but  12.47  per  cent,  of  sucrose  ;  the 
growth  of  1878  gave  16  per  cent.  The  fact  seems  sufficiently  evident  that  the  sorglmm 
as  a  sugar  plant  contains  an  amount  of  crystallizable  sugar  fully  equal  to  the  Loui¬ 
siana  cane. 

/  SEED. 


It  was  suggested  that  by  steeping  the  seed  in  warm  water  for  24  to  48  hours  it  would 
become  sprouted,  and  hence  would  grow  more  rapidly.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
was  urged  that  a  dry  season  would  kill  the  sprouted  seed  and  the  crop  would  be  a  fail¬ 
ure.  Nature  porvides  the  most  opportune  moistening. 

The  weight  of  opinion  was  decidedly  in  favor  of  seed  brought  from  the  latitude  of 
Saint  Louis.  Some  cane-growers  had  sent  their  seed  to  Missouri  and  Kansas  to  have 
a  crop  grown  and  its  seed  returned.  Among  the  decisive  facts  reported,  Mr.  Miller 
stated  that  his  seed  imported  from  Southern  Indiana  11  years  before  had  produced  on  its 
first  sowing  stalks  from  12  to  15  feet  high ;  but  by  planting  the  seeds  of  each  crop  its  suc¬ 
cessor  showed  a  declining  height  of  cane  until  it  grew  but  7  or  8  feet  high.  Mr.  Wylie 
Lad  averaged,  with  seed  brought  from  the  South,  273  gallons  per  acre  ;  the  following 
year,  using  his  own  seed,  he  obtained  but  223  gallons,  a  falling  off  of  50  gallons.  The 
president  of  the  convention  had  found,  as  a  general  thing,  that  the  deterioration  of 
seed  was  not  very  marked  till  the  third  year.  The  Southern  seed  did  not  excel  so 
much  in  an  earlier  ripening  of  the  crop  as  in  its  increased  product,  the  excess,  in  some 
cases,  amounting  to  one-tliird.  The  sentiment  of  the  convention  was  expressed  in  the 
following  resolution : 

u  Resolved,  That  Early  Amber  cane-seed,  grown  in  the  latitude  of  Saint  Louis,  is  the 
best  seed  for  Minnesota  for  two  years.” 

The  seed  has  a  value  of  its  own  for  consumption  on  the  farm.  It  was  pronounced 
excellent  for  feeding  hogs,  sheep,  or  poultry.  The  5  or  6  tufts  growing  upon  a  hill  of 
cane  were  estimated  as  equal  in  feeding  value  to  three  average  ears  of  corn.  A  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  convention  pronounced  it  equal  to  oats.  Another  had  found  that  the  seed 
fed  to  sheep  made  thelleece  look  lively  and  polished. 


PLANTING. 

Plant  just  deep  enough  to  secure  moisture.  Hence,  earlier  plantings  should  be  shal" 
lower  than  late  ones.  There  was  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  arrangement  of 
he  hills.  The  president  of  the  convention,  Mr.  Kenny,  plants  in  rows  3$  feet  each 

t 


36 


way  and  uses  2  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  or  6  or  7  seed  to  the  hill ;  at  the  second  hoeing 
he  thins  them  out.  Mr.  Day  marks  the  rows  3  feet  each  way.  Seed  should  he  planted 
not  down  in  the  trough  of  the  marking  furrow  where  a  heavy  rain  is  apt  to  wash  it 
away,  hut  on  the  edge.  Mr.  Wiley  plants  from  15  to  18  inches  one  way  and  3  feet  the 
other  way,  the  rov  s  running  north  and  south,  thus  doubling  the  number  of  hills  planted 
hy  Mr.  Day.  A  tract  of  4  acres  sown  broadcast  was  reported  as  producing  at  the  rate 
of  450  gallons  per  acre. 

Mr.  Miller  practiced  stepping  upon  the  seed  as  they  were  placed  in  the  ground. 
Several  planters  present  sanctioned  this  practice,  urging  that  the  close  pressure  of  the 
soil  around  the  seed  enables  it  to  germinate  more  rapidly.  It  was  objected  that  step¬ 
ping  the  seed  caused  the  ground  to  bake,  but  it  was  replied  that  this  was  the  case 
only  with  wet  clay  ground. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CROP. 

The  leading  point  presented  in  the  culture  of  cane  is  keeping  it  clear  of  weeds.  This 
requires  prompt  action  with  the  hoe,  drag,  and  cultivator.  A  grain  farmer  suggested 
the  use  of  Thomas’s  harrow,  of  90  steel  teeth,  but  the  general  sentiment  was  that  the 
cane-plants  were  too  tender  for  any  such  treatment.  It  should  be  thoroughly  hoed 
until  large  enough  to  cultivate  with  the  plow  or  cultivator. 

TIME  TO  CUT  THE  CANE. 

Mr.  Whiting  had  found  the  best  results  from  early  cuttings,  but  admitted  that  in 
the  later  cuttings  it  was  the  extreme  hot  weather  that  had  changed  the  sucrose  to  glu¬ 
cose.  The  president  thought  the  proper  time  was  when  the  seed  is  in  the  stiff  dough, 
or  from  August  28  to  September  1.  It  seems  to  improve  for  a  few  days,  but  afterwards 
it  begins  to  decline  in  saccharine  matter.  The  earlier  the  cutting  after  the  seed  has 
reached  the  dough  stage  the  larger  the  product  and  the  brighter  and  cleaner  the  sirup. 
The  question  of  suckering  was  considerably  debated,  and  facts  both  pro  and  con  were 
alleged,  but  the  convention  expressed  no  collective  opinion. 

HARVESTING. 

The  question  of  stripping  the  leaves  elicited  considerable  discussion.  On  the  one 
hand  it  was  urged  that  if  the  leaves  were  put  through  the  mill  with  the  stalk  they 
would  absorb  a  large  portion  of  the  juice.  It  was  replied  that  this  would  not  be  the 
case  with  mills  of  sufficient  power.  Force  enough  should  be  applied  to  express  the 
whole  of  the  juice. 

It  was  complained  that  cane-growers  lost  a  great  deal  by  purchasing  cheap  and  poor 
machinery.  One  gentleman  estimated  the  cost  of  stripping  the  leaves  before  cutting 
at  $15  per  acre.  Some  advocates  of  stripping  were  disposed  to  admit  that  it  would  not 
pay  unless  labor  were  plenty  and  cheap.  The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  stated  that 
the  department  experiments  showed  little  or  no  difference  between  stripped  and  un¬ 
stripped  cane,  although  the  department  mill  was  jjn  indifferent  One.  Several  urged 
that  if  the  leaves  were  dry  they  would  not  in  any  way  affect  the  quality  of  the#sirup. 
The  convention  did  not  express  any  general  opinion  upon  this  point.  It  was  consid¬ 
ered  of  first  importance  that  the  tops  be  completely  removed,  as  a  single  top  sent 
through  the  mill  would  spoil  a  large  amount  of  sirup. 

The  cane  should  be  cut,  some  say,  6  or  8  inches  from  the  ground,  and  others,  at 
the  first  joint.  The  top  should  also  be  cut  off  from  18  inches  to  2  feet ;  there  is  no 
sweetness  in  either  the  tops  or  the  roots.  Some  planters  laid  the  cane  in  windrows, 
and  others  were  opposed  to  the  practice  as  exposing  the  leaves  if  not  the  stalks  to 
mildew.  The  storing  of  cane  after  cutting  started  discussion.  Some  insisted  that  it 
should  be  immediately  placed  under  cover  to  avoid  the  evaporation  of  the  sun’s  rays. 
Others  piled  in  ridges  4  feet  high,  and  covered  the  mass  with  marsh  hay.  To  this  it 
was  objected  that  the  lack  of  ventilation  would  spoil  the  cane.  To  obviate  this  diffi¬ 
culty  some  planters  were  in  the  habit  of  laying  poles  along  the  piles  every  2  feet,  in 
order  to  admit  fresh  air.  Some  would  pile  it  as  cane  is  sometimes  piled  in  the  field, 
crossing  the  hills  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  ventilation  and  to  shed  the  rain.  Cane 
that  had  been  kept  in  these  different  ways  for  several  weeks  were  reported  as  having 
produced  large  and  fine  sirup  products.  One  planter  produced  juice  that  ranged  from 
7  to  10,  from  cane  that  had  been  stripped  and  covered  with  leaves,  while  other  cane 
of  the  same  lot,  that  had  been  ground  with  leaves  on,  ranged  as  high  as  12.  Dr. 
Goesman,  of  Massachusetts,  was  quoted  as  saying  that  .there  was  a  gain  of  3  per  cent, 
by  being  allowed  to  lie  with  the  leaves  on.  One  planter  had  found  such  cane  to  test 
11,  while  stripped  cane  tested  only  10.  The  higher  per  cent.,  however,  was  by  many 
attributed  to  the  evaporation  of  the  watery  part  of  the  sirup,  leaving  the  saccharine 
matter  in  larger  proportion  to  the  residue.  Others  had  not  found  the  juice  to  be  any 
sweeter  after  evaporation. 


37 


TRANSPORT  OF  CANE  TO  THE  MILL. 

Mr.  Wiley  thought  it  would,  pay  every  farmer  to  have  his  own  mill.  The  price  of 
the  sirup  iy.  the  market  ranged  from  35  to  50  cents  per  gallon.  The  mill  owner  will 
charge  from  15  to  25  cents  per  gallon ;  if  to  this  be  added  a  charge,  say  of  10  cents  per 
gallon,  for  hauling  to  a  distant  mill,  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  grower  gets  but  a  small 
proportion  for  his  labor.  It  cost  the  president  $19. 11  to  haul  the  cane  of  12  acres — 
part  of  it  near  the  mill,  and  the  remainder  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  away.  It  is  bet¬ 
ter  for  the  farmer  to  have  the  profit  of  manufacturing  the  cane  as  well  as  of  raising  it. 
In  moving  the  cane  from  the  held  there  was  a  strong  expression  in  favor  of  bundling 
it.  Some  would  decapitate  it  with  a  broad-ax,  after  binding.  Some  used  a  common 
dump-cart  with  an  elongated  box.  The  points  kept  in  view,  both  in  the  transporta¬ 
tion  and  in  the  storing  of  the  cane,  were  protection  from  the  weather,  and  such  ven¬ 
tilation  through  the  mass  as  would  prevent  mildew. 

GRINDING. 

The  hrst  step  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  sirup  is  the  grinding  or  crushing  of 
the  cane  to  express  the  juice.  Mr.  Miller  saw  men  at  work  with  a  very  indifferent 
apparatus,  which  extracted  but  a  small  portion  of  the  juice.  On  remonstrating  with 
them  he  was  told  that  if  you  extracted  too  much  of  the  juice  it  soured  the  whole.  This 
ignorant  prejudice  assumes  what  chemical  analysis  and  intelligent  experience  has 
exploded — that  only  a  portion  of  the  juice  is  lit  for  evaporation.  The  almost  univer¬ 
sal  expression  of  the  convention  was  in  favor  of  extracting  the  last  possible  portion  of 
the  juice.  For  this  purpose  the  most  powerful  mills  were  considered  as  essential  to 
the  working  of  the  crop.  The  president,  Mr.  Kenny,  has  a  mill  weighing  4,000  pounds, 
with  rollers  1G  inches  long  and  16  inches  in  diameter;  with  a  24-liorse  power  engine 
it  expresses  4,000  gallons  of  juice  per  day,  getting  from  65  to  70  percent,  of  the  juice  in 
the  stalk. 

Mr.  Keating  had  a  small  mill,  expressing  about  75  gallons  per  day,  that  worked  very 
well,  cutting  every  stalk  at  the  joints  and  feeding  8  to  15  stalks  at  a  time.  Mr.  Whit¬ 
ney  says  that  small  mills,  like  the  Victor,  if  not  too  much  crowded,  will  crush  the  cane 
perfectly  dry.  Clark  and  Utter’s  mill,  manufactured  at  Dodge  Center,  with  back 
gearing,  was  reported  as  a  very  efficient  mechanism ;  its  cost  was  $100.  The  general 
sentiment  was  that  the  milling  machinery  should  be  sufficiently  powerful  to  obtain 
the  largest  practicable  per  cent,  of  juice  in  the  stalk.  It  was  estimated  that  Minne¬ 
sota  farmers  had  lost  thousands  upon  thousands  of  dollars  through  the  use  of  poor 
machinery.  Mr.  Whiting  gave  a  humorous  account  of  his  efforts  to  construct  a  wooden 
mill,  which  amounted  to  nothing. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  feeding  the  mill,  it  was  urged  that  the  cane  should  be 
inserted  evenly,  and  with  the  butt  ends  foremost.  The  supply  should  be  regular  and 
up  to  the  uormal  capacity  of  the  rollers.  It  is  not  desirable  that  it  be  full  at  one  time 
and  half  full  at  another.  There  is  a  considerable  art  in  properly  feeding  a  mill.  An 
incompetent  feeder  will  clog  it  up,  from  time  to  time,  by  an  irregular  supply. 

*  TREATMENT  OF  TIIE  JUICE. 

After  a  thorough  extraction  of  the  available  juice  in  the  cane,  the  next  step  is  its 
evaporation  and  defecation.  Heat  is  the  great  agent  in  the  clarification  of  the  juice. 
Hence  Mr.  Earle  claimed  that  the  most  important  element  in  the  whole  process  of 
manufacture  is  a  good  furnace.  He  would  select  a  hillside  fronting  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds  in  September,  so  as  to  secure  as  great  draught  as  possible; 
place  the  furnace  on  a  level  lower  than  the  mill,  with  a  fall  of  at  least  10  feet.  With 
a  furnace  in  this  position,  properly  constructed,  he  has  had  but  little  difficulty  in 
throwing  a  tlame  16  feet  higher  than  any  ordinary  height  of  stack,  using  the  bagasse 
as  fuel.  It  can  be  done  also  with  light  wood,  but  not  with  heavy  wood.  The  furnace 
must  have  a  ventilating  Hue.  Mr.  Wylie  had  scared  his  horses  at  night  by  the  bright 
flames  coming  out  of  his  stack.  The  president,  Mr.  Kenny,  suggested  it  was  not  just 
the  thing  to  send  the  heat  in  ilatnes  15  feet  above  the  stack;  all  that  can  be  utilized 
is  that  which  operates  under  the  evaporating  pan.  Under  the  instructions  of  Mr.  Swartz 
he  had  reconstructed  his  arch  so  that  instead  of  a  great  blaze  at  the  top  of  the  stack 
there  was  an  intense  heat  under  the  pan. 

Mr.  Earle  had  arranged  his  pans  on  different  levels  so  that  the  back  pan  was  7  inches 
higher  than  the  other.  Mr.  Dickenson  followed  the  directions  of  an  expert  in  the 
construction  of  his  furnace,  but  could  not  get  the  back  part  of  the  pan  to  boil  till  he 
had  torn  out  the  furnace  and  reconstructed  it  in  accordance  with  his  own  ideas.  He 
raised  his  stack  from  15  feet  to  28  feet  and  would  prefer  at  least  30  feet.  To  control 
the  draught  he  put  in  dampers.  He  adopted  other  contrivances  for  concentrating  the 
heat  under  the  pan.  As  cord-wood  was  too  coarse,  he  hired  a  man  to  split  it  tine. 
Oak  and  maple  were  unfit,  but  basswood,  poplar,  and  other  light,  free-burning  kinds 


38 


will  just  meet  the  demands.  The  more  rapid  and  intense  the  heat  under  the  pan,  the 
more  complete  the  evaporation  and  defecation  of  the  juice.  Mr.  Miller,  who  had  for¬ 
merly  shared  Mr.  Dickenson’s  prejudice  in  favor  of  light  wood,  saw  a  counter-demon¬ 
stration  in  Mr.  Swartz’s  factory.  There  heavy  red  oak  and  jack-oak  sticks  were  made 
to  produce  an  intense  heat  by  mingling  them  with  coal.  Mr.  Swartz’s  arch  ^as  2  feet 
deep  and  2d  feet  wide.  It  is  best  not  to  cramp  the  arch,  but  make  it  wide  enough  for 
the  embers  to  spread  and  present  a  broader  heating  surface. 

There  were  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to  smoke-stacks.  The  prevailing  tend¬ 
ency  to  make  the  pipes  too  small  was  noted  by  several  speakers.  One  member  stated 
as  a  scientific  principle  that  the  cubic  contents  of  the  stack  or  chimney  should  be  at 
least  two-thirds  of  that  between  the  grates  and  the  fire.  Mr.  Miller  thought  Mr. 
Swartz’s  chimney  a  perfect  pattern.  It  was  35  feet  high,  and  from  2  to  3  feet  in  diam¬ 
eter.  No  flame  came  above  the  stack  at  night.  The  width  of  his  own  fire-place  is 
about  30  inches,  with  which  he  is  able  to  boil  as  fast  as  desirable  with  dry  basswood 
and  poplar. 

Mr.  Swartz  does  not  break  the  scales  off  his  pan,  but  lets  them  remain  till  they 
become  loose  of  themselves;  then  they  would  be  removed  in  the  daily  cleansing  of  the 
pans.  He  finds  that  the  Liberian  cane  deposits  a  scale  entirely  different  from  the 
Early  Amber.  The  sirup  of  the  former  does  not  turn  nearly  as  early  as  that  of  the 
latter.  Mr.  Wylie  gets  rid  of  them  by  burning  a  forkful  of  straw  under  the  pan  when 
it  is  perfectly  dr$  and  clean.  Then  under  the  quick  flame  the  scales  will  blister  and 
fall  off. 

Mr.  Wylie  for  five  years  had  used  the  “Cook”  pans.  A  neighbor,  Mr.  Stubbs,  had 
made  a  new  one,  that  is  patentable,  costing  but  $35,  while  Cook’s  cost  $90.  It  is  from 
14  to  16  feet  long,  and  has  two  partitions  in  it.  It  easily  makes  100  gallons  a  day,  a 
result  requiring  hard  labor  with  Cook’s  pans.  One  man,  with  two  of  Stubbs’s  pans, 
can  easily  make  200  gallons  a  day,  and. read  the  newspapers  besides.  This  opinion, 
however,  was  far  from  unanimous.  A  member  had  used  Stubbs’s  pan  for  two  years,  but 
was  dissatisfied  with  its  results.  It  employs  the  principle  used  in  the  Faribault 
refinery  in  the  collection  of  the  skimmings.  Mr.  Wylie  described  the  “ Stubbs”  pan 
with  the  aid  of  a  diagram;  sides  14  inches  high,  36  inches  broad  on  top,  16  feet  long. 
It  is  arranged  with  a  center  foundation  so  that  it  cannot  burn ;  the  heat  is  cut  off  with 
a  damper.  In  producing  2,725  gallons  of  sirup,  Mr  Wylie  had  used  4d  cords  of  wood, 
at  $1.25  per  cord.  The  center  arch  is  within  5  feet  of  the  front  of  the  pan.  It  is  set 
level.  Five  years  ago  the  Cook  pan  only  was  used  in  Medina,  Minn.,  now  not  one  is 
in  use  there,  while  twenty  Stubbs  pans  are  used.  It  is  better  than  the  Blymyre  pan 
because  it  skims  itself,  and  there  is  no  clinging  of  the  skim  to  the  sides. 

Mr.  Miller  had  invented  an  attachment  to  the  Cook  pan,  which  overcomes  all  the 
difficulties  heretofore  complained  of.  Cook’s  pan,  with  this  attachment,  runs  the  juice 
in  and  the  sirup  out  without  change.  It  does  not  discolor  the  sirup  by  reboiling. 
Hence  the  sirups  made  in  Cook’s  pans  are  clearer,  and  freer  from  muddiness,  than  other 
sirups.  Mr.  Wylie  denied  that  sirups  boiled  in  the  Stubbs  pan  were  at  all  muddy,  and 
showed  a  very  fair  specimen.  The  merits  of  different  pans  were  presented  at  some 
length  by  different  speakers. 


C. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  SUGAR  MACHINERY. 

The  following  illustrations  of  the  mechanical  processes  of  sugar-making  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  are  not  intended  to  advertise  the  business  of  the  manufacturers  who 
have  so  kindly  furnished  cuts  of  their  machinery  for  this  report,  but  to  present  to 
farmers  desiring  to  engage  in  sugar-production  type  specimens  of  approved  methods 
of  working  up  the  cane.  There  are  other  manufacturers  whose  models  do  not  appear 
in  this  report,  who,  doubtless,  are  able  to  furnish  machinery  at  reasonable  prices. 
The  purpose  of  these  illustrations  is  to  present  to  sugar-growers  some  of  the  facilities 
which  the  market  affords  for  their  enterprise  and  to  put  them  upon  inquiry  as  to 
where  they  can  obtain  the  best  machinery  and  at  the  lowest  prices. 

Plate  V  shows  the  Victor  cane  mill,  an  apparatus  in  very  common  use.  It  is  con¬ 
structed  with  vertical  rollers  on  a  plan  suited  to  horse-power,  or  with  horizontal  roll¬ 
ers  for  water  or  steam  power.  The  horizontal  mills  are  fitted  with  extra  gearing,  are 
necessarily"  heavier  and  require  greater  motive  power  to  accomplish  the  same  result. 
Plate  V  shows  the  vertical  mill,  of  which  seven  sizes  are  on  the  market;  the  smallest 
is  a  1-horse  power  mill,  running  40  gallons  of  juice  per  hour,  and  weighing  395  pounds, 
at  a  cost  of  $48;  the  largest  is  a  4-horse  power  machine,  1,900  pounds  weight,  running 
170  gallons  per  hour,  and  costing  $230. 

Plate  VI  shows  the  vertical  Victor  mill,  with  the  horse-power  operating  in  a  lower 
story.  The  advantages  claimed  for  this  arrangement  are,  1,  the  mill  is  more  steady ; 


39 


2,  horses  and  cane  do  not  interfere  with  each  other;  3,  the  bagasse  is  more  easily  re¬ 
moved;  4,  the  juice  flows  down  into  the  evaporator.  For  five  different  sizes  the  prices 
are  $90,  $105,  $140,  $155,  $240. 

Plate  \#II  represents  a  horizontal  Victor  mill  adapted  to  steam  or  water  power,  of 
which  three  sizes  are  in  the  market,  viz,  No.  1,  weighing  2,200  pounds,  and  valued  at 
$250;  No.  2.  3,500  pounds,  $350;  No.  3,  4,000  pounds,  $450. 

Plate  VIII,  Fig.  1,  represents  a  portable  “Cook”  evaporator,  of  which  three  sizes 
are  for  sale.  These  pans  are  44  inches  wide  and  from  6  to  9  feet  in  length,  ranging 
from  40  to  90  gallons  per  day.  When  the  pans  are  of  galvanized  iron,  the  prices.are,  re¬ 
spectively,  $65,  $75,  an.l  $8o.  With  copper  pans  the  prices  are  from  $55  to  $70  higher. 
Each  contains  a  portable  furnace.  The  whole  can  be  lifted  into  a  wagon  by  two  men 
and  transported  from  field  to  held  with  a  light  Victor  mill,  and  thus  save  the  transpor¬ 
tation  of  the  cane.  * 

Plate  VIII,  Fig.  2,  represents  a  “  Cook  ”  stationary  evaporator,  of  which  there  are 
seven  sizes,  adapted  to  corresponding  sizes  of  the  Victor  mills.  They  are  bedded  upon 
brick  or  stone  arches,  and  are  44  inches  wide,  ranging  in  length  from  G  to  15  feet. 
Their  capacity  is  from  40  to  180  gallons  per  day,  and  their  price  from  $30  to  $90  for 
galvanized-iron  pans,  and  from  $80  to  $210  for  copper  pans.  Furnace  fronts  and  doors 
cost  from  $5.50  to  $8  ;  grates,  from  $4  to  $8. 

Plate  IX  represents  sUll  larger  sizes  of  these  pans. 

Plate  X  represents  a  complete  sugar  factory,  the  size  and  cost  of  which  must  neces¬ 
sarily  vary  with  the  number  of  acres  of  sugar-cane  to  be  worked  up.  A  is  the  juice- 
tank  ;  the  juice,  after  running  from  the  crushing-mill  into  a  tank  on  a  lower  level,  is 
pumped  up  to  thejuice-tank  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  building.  II  is  the  defecator 
for  tlie  elimination  of  crude  impurities.  C  C  are  settling  tanks;  D,  supply  tank  from 
which  the  evaporator  is  fed ;  E,  a  Cook  evaporator ;  F,  supply-tank  for  the  strike- pan ; 
G,  strike-pan,  in  which  the  semi-sirup  is  reduced  to  the  proper  consistency  for  sugar; 
H  H,  receptacles  for  scum  ;  I,  truck  for  carrying  the  sirup  to  the  sugar  room;  J,  the 
sugar-room,  with  cooling-boxes,  barrels,  &c.  ;  here  an  even  temperature  is  kept  up  to 
assist  granulation ;  here,  also,  the  sugar  is  drained  and  stored. 

Plate  XI  represents  a  steam  plant,  or  steam  train,  consisting  of  a  duplex  mill  for 
grinding  the  cane.  It  has  two  sets  of  housing,  and  each  set  two  rollers.  Each  stand 
of  housing  and  rollers  is  placed  G  or  8  feet  from  centers,  and  the  intermediate  space 
occupied  by  an  endless  carrying- frame  traveling  in  the  same  direction  as  the  rotation 
of  the  wheels,  and  at  the  same  speed.  The  cane  is  fed  to  one  set  of  rolls,  called  the 
roughing-rolls,  which,  slit  and  crush  it.  It  is  then  received  by  the  carrying-frame  of 
wooden  slats  and  carried  to  the  other  set  of  rolls.  It  is  moistened,  on  its  way,  by  a 
spray  of  water  thrown  by  a  steam  jet.  This  saturates  and  fluxes  the  sucrose,  not  yet 
extracted,  which  is  then  obtained.  This  residuum,  though  diluted  with  water,  is  the 
richest  of  the  whole.  This  mill,  when  properly  fed,  will  grind  from  5  to  G  tons  of 
cane  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Plate  XII  is  a  vertical  view  of  the  last. 

Plate  XIII  is  a  defecating  tank  8  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  deep.  Over  the 
bottom  is  spread  a  manifold  of  steam  pipe,  and  contains  a  strainer  through  which  the 
juice,  perfectly  clear,  can  be  drawn  off.  The  tank  may  be  cleansed  with  pure  water 
for  a  fresh  filling.  Each  tank-full  can  be  handled  in  thirty  minutes.  Two  of  these 
tanks  are  connected  with  the  mill,  and  are  ample  for  defecating  GOO  gallons  per  hour. 

Plate  XIV  represents  an  evaporator  6  feet  in  diameter  and  4  feet  deep.  Each  is 
furnished  with  coils  of  steam-pipe  125  feet  long,  and  a  diaphragm  directing  the  cur¬ 
rents  of  evolution  over  the  steam-coils  up  the  outside  and  down  the  middle  axis.  In 
the  center  of  the  pan  is  an  adjustable,  funnel-shaped  skimmer,  which  may  be  raised 
or  lowered,  so  as  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  boiling  juice.  It  catches  all 
the  scum  gathered  by  the  currents  and  delivers  it  through  a  pipe  penetrating  the  bot¬ 
tom,  outside  of  the  evaporator.  Two  evaporators  will  reduce  (500  gallons  of  defecated 
juice  to  oue-lialf  the  volume  in  an  hour  and  a  half. 

Plate  XV  represents  the  concentrator,  which  differs  from  the  evaporator  by  having 
a  dosed  top  and  a  water-jet  condenser,  producing  a  vacuum.  In  this  vacuum  GOO 
gallons  of  evaporated  juice  are  reduced  to  200,  or  only  one-sixth  the  volume  that  en¬ 
tered  the  evaporator.  This  reduced  liquid  is  called  semi-sirup,  and  can  be  stored  in 
tanks  or  shipped  in  barrels  to  a  refinery,  or  reduced  to  a  dense  sirup  in  a  vacuum-pan 
constructed  very  much  on  the  same  plan  as  the  concentrator. 

A  complete  sugar-mill,  embracing  the  above  apparatus,  with  engines,  boilers,  cen¬ 
trifugal  dryer,  tubs,  tanks,  and  .all  other  necessary  appliances  for  making  sirup  and 
sugar,  will  cost  about  $10,000. 

Plate  XVI  represents  a  very  heavy  crushing  mill.  'The  smallest  size  of  this  series 
of  mills  has  rollers  12  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  long,  expressing  from  good  ripe 
cane  about  150  gallons  of  juice  per  hour.  Larger  sizes  do  a  proportionately  larger 

share  of  work. 

Plate  XVII  is  an  “exhaust  steam  clarifier.”  Heat  is  applied  to  the  juice;  the  albu¬ 
men  is  coagulated  and  the  acid  neutralized  by  milk  of  lime,  which  also  renders  insol- 


40 


ublc  sundry  soluble  impurities  and  precipitates  them.  But  as  an  excess  of  lime  attacks 
tlie  sugar  in  tlie  juice  it  is  of  special  importance  that  its  quantity  be  regulated.  In  this 
clarifier  this  is  done  by  means  of  a  vessel  graduated  by  inches,  each  inch  correspond¬ 
ing  to  4i  cubic  inches  of  milk  of  lime.  The  total  quantity  of  the  lime  ranges  from 
0.01  to  0.03  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  the  juice.  When  the  proper  temperature 
has  been  acquired,  the  scum  rises  to  the  top  and  begins  to  break  and  show  bulbs. 
The  proper  point  of  defecation  is  then  considered  to  have  been  reached,  and  the  clari¬ 
fied  sirup  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  double  cock  in  the  bottom  of  the  defecator.  The 
scum  .and  precipitates  are  discharged  through  another  channel. 

Plate  XVIII  is  a  “direct  steam  evaporator,”  which  receives  the  clarified  juice  from 
the  steam  clarifier  shown  in  Plate  XVII.  The  juice  is  boiled  by  means  of  a  coiled  steam 
pipe.  The  resulting  scum  boils  over  into  a  trough  around  the  upper  edge  of  the  evap¬ 
orator  and  is  itself  subjected  to  defecation  afterwards. 

Plate  XIX  represents  a  “  steam  train  ”  of  three  clarifiers  and  one  evaporator,  repre¬ 
sented  in  Plates  XVII  and  XVIII.  This  steam  train  requires  but  few  men  to  work 
it  and  is  very  cleanly  in  its  action.  It  dispenses  with  pumps  and  ladles.  The  sirup 
is  fully  prepared  for  the  vacuum-pan. 

Plate  XX  represents  a  vacuum-pan.  This  pan  can  be  placed  upon  framing  or  walls 
built  up  in  the  house,  but  it  is  considered  preferable  to  support  it  upon  iron  columns 
as  in  the  plate  and  independent  of  the  building.  The  elevation  should  be  sufficient  to 
admit  of  discharging  the  “strike”  into  the  “centrifugal  mixer.”  The  plate  shows  a 
vacuum-pan  arranged  to  work  on  the  u  wet  ”  system  ;  that  is,  in  combination  with  a 
water-pump.  The  sirup  is  boiled  at  a  very  low  temperature,  producing  a  larger  quan¬ 
tity  and  a  better  quality  of  crystallized  sugar,  yet  the  boiling  is  so  rapid  that  the 
sugar  does  not  get  time  to  become  inverted.  Heat  is  applied  to  the  sirup  by  means  of 
a  coil  of  copper  pipe  filled  with  steam,  which,  on  being  condensed,  is  conducted  back 
to  the  boiler. 

Plate  XXI  represents  a  combination  styled  “  Multiple  effect.”  It  embraces  a  direct 
fire  evaporator  for  the  first  juice,  working  under  a. vacuum  in  connection  with  a  strike 
pan  with  the  combined  water  and  vacuum  pump,  also  the  mixer  and  centrifugal  ma¬ 
chine.  This  machinery  is  especially  designed  for  making  sugar  from  sorghum  and  corn¬ 
stalks.  The  process  consists  in  boiling  the  juice  in  a  tubular  or  cylindrical  boiler  very 
similar  to  a  steam-boiler,  the  fuel  being  only  the  bagasse.  The  vapor  is  conducted  by 
pipes  to  the  valves  in  the  vacuum-pan  and  admitted  to  the  copper  coil  which  serves 
as  a  surface  condenser.  A  vacuum-pump  draws  off  the  condensed  liquid  and  the 
vapors.  As  the  liquid  thickens  it  is  passed  to  the  strike-pan  where,  by  means  of  a 
higher  vacuum,  the  boiling  is  perfected  into  crystal.  It  is  then  discharged  into  the 
mixer,  where  it  is  gently  stirred  to  prevent  “settling.”  It  is  then  drawn  through 
valves  in  the  bottom  of  the  mixer  into  the  centrifugal,  where  the  molasses  is  eliminated 
and  the  granulated  sugar  fitted  for  packing.  The  molasses  is  discharged  into  a  tank 
and  reboiled,  after  which  it  is  passed  into  cans  and  allowed  to  granulate ;  finally,  the 
molasses  is  eliminated,  as  in  the  first  run.  The  only  use  of  a  steam-boiler  in  this  process 
is  to  drive  the  cane-mill  and  the  centrifugal,  which  will  require  a  small  engine.  This 
feature  is  claimed  as  a  special  advantage  in  cutting  down  the  expense  of  the  process. 
As  there  will  be  no  very  heavy  pressure  there  is  no  danger  of  explosion,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  boiler  may  be  made  less  expensive.  This  method  of  reducing  in  vacuo  pre¬ 
vents  caramelization,  as  the  air  is  kept  off  and  only  a  low  heat  employed.  The  prices 
of  this  apparatus  vary  with  the  results  to  be  obtained. 

Plate  XXII  represents  a  form  of  centrifugal  machine  called  the  “  German  style.”  It 
runs  in  elastic  bearings  and  does  not  require  to  be  set  in  masonry.  Its  manufacturers 
claim  that  it  will  purge  from  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of  sugar  per  hour.  Price,  $400,  with 
$10  extra  for  boxing. 

Plate  XXIII  represents  a  “  Hanging  centrifugal  machine,”  especially  adapted  to  cer¬ 
tain  classes  of  gummy  sugars.  It  requires  no  specific  skill  in  the  operator.  Price, 
without  frames,  $775 ;  with  frames,  $955,  or  $900  each  for  two  machines  ;  boxing,  $10 
for  each  machine.  It  is  larger  than  the  German  machine  described  in  Plate  XXII,  and 
discharges  the  sugar  through  the  bottom.  It  will  purge  from  2,000  to  4,000  pounds  of 
sugar  per  hour. 

Plate  XXIV  represents  the  latest  improved  centrifugal  driven  from  below.  It  will 
purge  from  2,500  to  5,000  pounds  of  sugar  per  hour.  Price,  with  frames,  $1,000  ;  two  ma¬ 
chines,  $950  each ;  a  machine  without  frames,  $350.  The  sugar  is  discharged  through 
the  bottom. 

Plate  XXV,  Fig.  1,  is  a  cheap  home-made  evaporator,  which  can  be  put  together  by 
any  ingenious  mechanic.  It  is  constructed  by  putting  wooden  sides  and  ends  upon  a 
galvanized  iron  or  copper  bottom. 

°  Plate  XXV,  Fig.  2,  is  a  pan  for  cooling  sirup  sent  by  a  correspondent.  Its  method 
is  sufficiently  clear  from  the  diagram. 

Plate  XXVI  represents  a  newly-invented  “evaporator.”  It  is  available  either  for  con¬ 
centrating  cane-j  nice  to  the  density  of  sirup  to  be  finished  in  the  vacuum-pan  or,  if 
the  vacuum  pan  is  not  used,  directly  up  to  the  point  of  granulation  of  sugar.  Th 


41 


defecated  juice  is  brought  through  a  canal  shown  on  the  left  of  the  picture  and  de¬ 
posited  continuously  in  the  first  table  of  the  evaporator.  When  it  lias  acquired  a  depth 
of  two  inches  steam  is  introduced  into  the  pipes  and  ebullit  ion  immediately  commences 
and  the  impurities  begin  to  rise.  The  latter  How  outward  to  the  sides  and  are  held  there 
by  a  constant  outward  current.  They  may  be  removed  without  any  waste  of  the  juice. 
The  discharge  of  water  resulting  from  condensation  is  regulated  by  a  valve.  The  gate 
is  then  opened  and  the  juice  is  passed  to  the  second  table  where  it,  is  subjected  to  tin* 
same  process,  and  then  to  the  third  table.  By  the  time  it  is  ready  to  pass  from  the 
third  table  it  is  reduced  to  a  density  varying  from  18°  to  32°  B.  It  then  passes  to  tin) 
strike-pan  on  the  fourth  level  where  it  is  brought  up  to  the  sugar  point.  It  is  then 
drawn,  either  in  a  continuous  stream  or  by  “strikes,”  into  molds  or  hogsheads.  Not 
less  than  15  hogsheads  or  30  moulds  should  be  ready  for  the  sirup.  These  should  re¬ 
ceive,  each  in  its  turn,  about  2  inches  depth  of  the  liquid,  and  when  the  last  has  re¬ 
ceived  its  quota  begin  again  at  the  head  of  the  series.  This  method  of  filling  gives 
the  sugar  time  to  crystallize  and  cool;  it  dispenses  with  tanks  and  with  a  second  hand¬ 
ling.  It  is  claimed  in  behalf  of  this  apparatus  that  its  elimination  of  impurities  at  the 
commencement  of  the  operation,  the  limited  time  in  which  the  sugar  is  subjected  to 
the  heat,  and  the  low  temperature  used,  cause  only  a  minimum  of  inversion  of  cane  sugar 
into  grape  sugar.  An  apparatus  producing  a  cubic  yard  of  sugar  per  hour  is  29  feet 
long  by  7  feet  wide.  It  will  require  about  4,000  bricks  to  construct  the  walls.  These 
trains  are  of  all  sizes  desirable,  with  capacities  ranging  from  100  gallons  per  day  to 
1,500  gallons  per  hour.  Prices  from  $50  for  two  small  pans  to  $3,000  for  large  trains 
complete. 

Plate  XXVII  represents  the  Stubbs  Evaporator.  The  first  cut  shows  the  pan  with 
two  compartments.  The  first  occupies  three-fourths  of  the  pan  ;  the  second  compart¬ 
ment  the  remaining  fourth.  The  juice  enters  the  first  compartment  near  the  smoke¬ 
stack  in  a  regular  stream,  passing  around  the  circle  over  the  fire-box  to  cross-parti¬ 
tions,  where  it  thickens  to  a  semi-sirup.  Being  over  the  hottest  part  of  the  furnace, 
it  raises  to  a  light  foam,  which  breaks  to  the  lowest  point  where  the  cool  juice  enters, 
not  only  keeping  back  the  green  scum,  but  carrying  all  the  scum  off  of  thirty  feet  sur¬ 
face,  where  it  is  scraped  oft' without  loss  of  sweet.  The  semi-sirup  is  turned  into  the 
second  compartment  at  intervals  to  be  finished  under  full  control  of  heat  governed  by 
dampers.  When  done,  to  be  run  off  with  scraper,  letting  semi-sirup  follow.  Boil  rap¬ 
idly  with  two  inches  juice  in  order  to  cleanse  well. 

The  second  engraving  represents  the  furnace.  Should  be  built  of  brick,  with  eight - 
inch  wall  fourteen  inches  above  fire-grate ;  the  balance  seven  inches.  A  sectional  arch 
with  one  damper  in  center,  hinged  at  the  back  end  to  swing  to  back  wall ;  also  dam¬ 
per  across  the  mouth  of  left  flue.  The  smoke-stack  stands  back  as  the  cut  indicates. 
The  smoke-stack  should  be  16  feet  high,  14  inches  diameter. 

Price  of  evaporators. 


Galvanized  iron : 

No.  20,  16  feet  long  by  40  inches  wide .  $50 

No.  20,  12  feet  long  by  36  inches  wide .  40 

Charcoal  iron : 

No.  20,  16  feet  long  by  40  inches  wide .  40 

No.  20,  12  feet  long  by  36  inches  wide .  35 


Plate  XXVIII  represents  the  mill,  evaporators,  &c.,  on  the  grounds  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  where  the  experiments  of  the  last  two  years  were 
performed.  A  description  will  be  found  in  the  chemist’s  report. 

SUGAR-MAKING  AMONG  THE  HINDOOS. 

In  1822  the  English  East  India  Company  published  an  exhaustive  report  upon  “the 
culture  and  manufacture  of  sugar  in  British  India.”  In  the  appendix  is  printed  an 
extract  from  “Dr.  Buchanan’s  journey  from  Madras, through  Mysore,  Canara,  ami 
Malabar,  in  1800.”  The  following  illustrations  present  the  processes  in  use  among 
Hindoo  sugar  producers  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

Plate  XXIX  represents  a  sugar-mill  consisting  of  mortar,  beam,  lever,  pestle,  and 
regulator.  The  mortar  is  constructed  of  a  tree  trunk,  and  is  about  10  feet  long  and  14 
inches  in  diameter,  and  is  sunk  8  feet  in  the  ground,  leaving  but  2  feet  above  the  sur¬ 
face.  The  upper  end  is  hollowed  into  an  inverted  conical  depression  in  which  the  cane 
is  crushed  by  a  pestle,  the  juice  being  delivered  by  a  tube  running  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  mortar.  Around  its  edge  is  a  groove  which  receives  w  liat  juice  may  over¬ 
flow  and  conducts  it  by  a  pipe  into  the  main  receptacle.  The  beam  is  a  portion  of  a 
tree  16  feet  long  and  6  inches  thick,  cut  below'  the  forks.  The  angle  is  enlarged  and 
rounded,  so  as  to  embrace  the  mouth  of  the  mortar  around  which  it  revolves,  supported 
by  a  flange.  The  forks  are  then  drawn  together.  On  this  beam  are  seated  the  mill- 
feeder  and  the  ox-driver.  The  lever  holds  the  pestle  in  its  place,  being  held  at  one 

4  AG 


42 


,  lw  rn,  nnviolit  niece  of  timber,  called  the  regulator,  to  which  it  is  pinned,  and  at 

I  p  o  her  end  by  ropes.  The  revolution  of  the  pestle  upon  the  small  out  cane  expresses 

£®  bdee  •  “he  baSse  is  removed  by  hand.  The  shape  of  he  lever  and  the  cavity  in 

Sbiib  it  receives  the  upper  end  of  the  pestle  causes  the  latter  to  revolve  on  an  oblique 
which  it  recen  cs  tn  II  . ,  .  conVormed  to  the  conical  depression  m  the  mortar 

^  pressure.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 

gallons,  in  24  hours.  The  oxen  are  driven  at  a  rapid  gait,  and  require  to  be  change 
“pHtis'xXXand^XXl' represent? modified  forms  of  the  Indian  sugar-mill.  The 

“pib^TxIlV^seitst'set  of  sugar  machinery  in  use  at  Burdwan  near  Calcutta, 

milVconsists^of  two^snmll'wooden'groovedcyhnder^vrorft^gi^almrizo^idpt^o^md 

•SSSraSSw-SSssis^RK^sS 

IfSa«£\Sr£.m  ?h"“OT»  m.th^-1.  »r«  not«a  ».  pKT- 
alent  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

stewart’s  process. 

rinVflttogToundai^neek  ;Ta  plug.^th  gum  fittings  to  insert  tightly  in  the  throat 
P,  and  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing,  R. 


f 


Plate  I. 


EARLY  AMBER  CANE. 

(Grown  upon  tlie  Department  groan -Is  during  the  season  of  1879. 


f 


* 


I 


Plate  II 


CHINESE  SORGO  CANE. 
Synonym:  Sumac  Cane,  Chinese  Cane 


« 


PlabliTr 


Ip  ary.  fa 


WHITE  L1IJERIAN  CANE. 

Synonym:  Goosk  Nkck,  White  Inipliec. 
IGrowu  on  the  Department  giouuils  during  the  season  of  1879.] 


JL  1UUV  JL  4  • 


HONDURAS  CANE. 

Synonyms:  Mastodon,  Sprangle-top,  Honey  Cane 

[Grown  on  the  Department  grounds  during  the  season  of  1879.1 


Plate  VI 


VERTICAL  VICTOR  MILL 

[With  horse-power  below.] 


Plate  VII 


HORIZONTAL  VICTOR  MIL1 


Fig-.  1 


Plate  VIII 


PORTABLE  COOK  EVAPORATOR. 


Fig-.  2- 


COOK  STATIONARY  EVAPORATOR 


Plate  XVI. 


HEAVY  CRUSHINO  MILI,. 


Plate  XV 


MoDO WELL’S  CONCENTRATOR 


. 


MCDOWELL’S  EVAPORATOR 


\ 


m 


MCDOWELL’S  DEFECATING  TANK. 


4 


I 


# 


Plate  XIT 


McDowell’s  steam  plant  or  train 

[Vertical  view.] 


Plate  XI. 


MCDOWELL’S  STEAM  PLANT  OK  TRAIN, 


H.  H.NICHOL  S.£NC. 


Plate  X. 


COMPLETE  SUGAR  MILL 


Plate  IX 


LARGE  STATIONARY  COOK  EVAPORATOR. 


Plate  XVII 


EXHAUST  STEAM  C’LAM  UK  I’ 


c  l 


* 


t 


Plate  XVIII 


DIRECT  STEAM  EVAPORATOR 


STEAM  TRAIN. 


Plate  XIX 


Plate  XX 


i 


VACITM  PAX 


Plate  XXI 


Plate  XXII 


“GERMAN  STYLE”  CENTRIFUGAL. 


Plate  XXIII. 


HANGING  CENTRIFUGAL. 


IMPROVED  CENTRIFUGAL. 


Plate  XXIV. 


Plate  XXV. 


Pig.  1. 


COMMON  FLAT  EVAPORATING  PAN. 


Wooden  sides  and  partition. 


Fig.  2. 


COOLING  PAN. 


The  hot  sirup  passes  through  the  iron  pipe  immersed  in  cold  water. 


4 


DAVID  WATSON’S  EVAPORATOR. 


Plate  XXVI 


/ 


' 


Plate  XXVII 

r- 1||  -  * 

wmi 


MininiiiiiiiiH . .  III . . 

Ui'i 

lllllll 

llll 

fniii 

illllllm 

miiiiii 

niiinli:li:ri.!„ 

tt  y 

lllllllllllll  lllllllllllll  IIIIIIIIIIIIIJIIIIIII1III  III 

Hill 

III!  II 

mi 

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mini 

llllllllll 

minn 

iiimii  iimimmiii 

mini 

V/ 

uni'  iiiiiiiiiiiii  . . .  iiniiiiii 

hi  i 

lllllll 

mi 

iiiiiiiiiiiii 

i;mii 

mnii:ii 

iiiiiiiii 

i  iiHiiHHHii  iiiiiii 

limn 

iiiiiiiii!  1  MM 

lllllllllllll  llllllllllllll  111111111(5^1111111111111  III 

Mill 

mi  ii 

mi 

iiiiii;,niii 

lllllll 

iiiiiiiiii 

in  mu 

iiiiini  iii  min  mi  1 1 

mini 

nil!  Il,i"!:  IftU 

mil  lllllllllllll1  lllllllllllll1  limfillllll  llllllllll 

III  1 

limn 

III! 

iiiiiiiiiiiii 

mu 

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miiiiii 

llllllllllllll!  lllllll 

iiiiiii 

Uli 

iiiiiiiiiiiii  iiiiiiiiiiiii  iiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiiiiiiiiin  mi 

IIIII 

iiini 

llll 

nun  iiiii 

mini 

iiiiiiiiii 

iirimi 

HllllinillllHIHIIIII 

iiiiiii 

mu  hiiiiiiiiim  :  HW 

iiiii  iiiiiiiiiwirmi . inn  iiiiiiiiiiini  iiiiiiiiii 

IIIII 

iiniii 

llll 

iiiiiiiiiiiii 

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STl'BB’S  EVAPORATOR 


Plate  XXVIII 


MENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

meat  of  Agriculture.  Description  in  t lie  Chemist’s  Report.] 


Plate  XXVIII 


niTiTTii 


iiiriiniiii'iuiiiife 
1111:11  nun  m[ 


SUGAR  MACHINERY  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT 


OF  AGRICULTURE. 


1 1  uited  States  Sugar  Mill.  Experiments  for  two  years  on  grounds  of  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Description  in  the  Chemist's  Report.] 


PlateXXIX 


SUGAR  MILL  IN  HINDOOSTAN  IN  1800 


Plate  XXX 


Ttiarx&i 


SUGAR  MILL  IN  HINDOOKTAN  IN  1800 


\ 


Plate  XXXI 


SUGAR  MILL  IN  HINDOOSTAN  IN  1800 


IN  179-J. 


Plate  XXXII 


SUGAR  MACHINERY  IN  HINDOOSTAN  IN  1792 


Plate  XXXIII. 


MACHINERY  USED  IN  STEWART’S  PROCESS. 


REPORT  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE 


OF 


Sugar,  Syrup,  and  Glucose 


FROM 


SORGHUM 


Based  upon  Experiments  made  in  1SS0  and  1SS1,  at  the 


Illinois  Industrial  University, 

BY 


HENRY  A.  WEBER,  Ph.  IX, 

Professor  of  Chemistry, 


AND 

MELVILLE  A.  SCOVELL,  M.  S., 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


CHAMPAIGN,  ILL. 

GAZETTE  STEAM  PRINT. 


S.  H.  PEABODY,  LL.D., 


Regent  Illinois  Industrial  University. 


SIR: 

The  undersigned  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  their 
complete  report  of  experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  sorghum, 
made  at  the  Illinois  Industrial  University  during  the  seasons  of  1880  and 
1881. 

Very  Respectfully, 

H.  A.  Weber,  Prof.  Chemistry. 

M.  A.  Scovell,  Prof.  Agricultural  Chemistry. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  object  of  the  investigations  made  upon  sorghum  cane  at  the  Illi¬ 
nois  Industrial  University,  was  to  settle,  if  possible,  the  much  disputed 
question,  whether  sugar  could  be  made  from  this  plant  on  a  manufactur¬ 
ing  scale  and  with  commercial  success.  From  the  many  conflicting  re¬ 
ports  relating  to  this  matter  no  definite  conclusions  could  be  drawn,  and 
it  was  found  necessary,  in  order  to  prosecute  our  work  in  an  intelligent 
manner,  to  treat  the  whole  subject  as  an  entirely  new  field  of  investiga¬ 
tion.  It  has  been  claimed  by  many,  that  the  proper  sphere  of  the  sorghum 
industry  is  the  production  of  sirup,  and  a  great  deal  of  good  work  has  been 
accomplished  in  improving  the  quality  and  yield  of  this  article.  But 
what  may  have  been  true  for  sorghum  a  few  years  ago  does  not  hold  good 
to-day.  The  sorghum  industry  is  at  the  present  time  confronted  by  an¬ 
other,  namely,  the  glucose  industry,  which  although  still  in  its  infancy  has 
already  shown  its  superiority  in  the  production  of  sirup  both  in  regard  to 
quality  and  quantity.  This  statement  is  made  with  due  consideration  of 
the  many  attacks  which  the  glucose  industry  has  of  late  received.  Glu¬ 
cose  as  an  article  of  food  is  equal  to  if  not  superior  to  cane  sugar,  and  its 
artificial  production  from  corn  or  other  amylaceous  substances  is  a  perfectly 
legitimate  business.  It  is  true,  that  in  the  decolorization  of  the  glucose 
injurious  substances  may  be  employed,  and  if  the  products  sent  to  mar¬ 
ket  are  not  perfectly  free  from  them,  great  injury  may  be  done  to  the  con¬ 
sumers.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  for  the  refining  of  cane  sugar.  But 
in  either  case  the  employment  of  injurious  substances  is  not  a  necessity 
and  should  be  condemned  by  every  one  who  is  interested  in  public  welfare. 
Glucose,  when  made  as  it  should  be,  is  perfectly  harmless,  and  no  valid 
objection  can  be  made  to  it  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  when  employed 
for  any  legitimate  purpose  to  which  it  is  adapted.  The  sorghum  industry 
must  regard  the  manufacture  of  glucose  as  a  fair  competitor,  and  the  latter 
will  never  lose  in  importance  by  any  unjustifiable  attacks  or  criticisms. 
From  these  considerations  it  seems  evident,  that  the  production  of  sirup 
alone  can  no  longer  maintain  the  cultivation  of  sorghum  on  a  scale  which 
would  suffice  to  give  it  the  name  of  an  industry. 

To  accomplish  this  sorghum  growers  should  turn  all  their  attention  and 
energy  to  the  production  of  crystallizable  sugar,  which  glucose  on  account 
of  its  inherent  properties  can  never  replace,  and  which  will  always  find  a 
ready  market  free  from  all  competition. 


4 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


These  circumstances  led  to  the  investigations  about  to  be  described, 
and  the  results  obtained  have  exceeded  our  most  sanguine  expectations. 
Our  experiments,  both  scientific  and  practical,  have  shown  beyond  a  doubt, 
not  only  that  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  sorghum  in  our  own  state  is 
practicable,  but  also  that  it  will  be  highly  renumerative,  when  undertaken 
on  a  large  scale. 

Up  to  the  present  time  sorghum  seed  has  never  found  a  proper  utili¬ 
zation.  Although  in  its  general  composition  it  resembles  other  grain  as 
corn,  the  amount  of  tannin  contained  in  it,  as  our  analysis  given  farther 
on  shows,  will  no  doubt  prevent  its  liberal  use  as  food  for  animals.  Know¬ 
ing  that  immense  quantities  of  seed  will  necessarily  be  produced  as  soon 
as  the  sorghum  sugar  industry  is  introduced,  we  have  given  this  matter 
careful  study,  and  have  found,  that  the  seed  is  eminently  adapted  for  the 
production  of  glucose.  We  have  prepared  the  glucose  directly  from  the 
ground  seed,  without  the  tedious  and  expensive  process  of  first  separating 
the  starch  The  great  advantage  of  this  industry  to  the  sorghum  industry 
will  appear  from  the  fact,  that  as  the  seed  is  practically  ripe  when  the  cane 
is  cut  it  can  be  stored  up  until  the  sugar  season  is  over,  and  can  after¬ 
wards  be  manufactured  into  glucose  with  the  same  machinery  now  used 
in  making  sugar  from  the  cane,  thus  giving  employment  for  the  balance  of 
the  year  to  the  works,  which  otherwise  would  have  to  lie  idle  for  eight  or 
ten  months  annually. 

Our  work  occupied  two  distinct  fields  of  experiments:  first,  scientific 
investigations,  in  which  the  nature  of  sorghum  cane  was  studied  ;  second, 
practical  experiments  in  making  sugar. 

>  PERIODICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  CANES  FOR  SUGAR. 

The  objects  of  these  analyses  were: 

1.  To  note  the  development  and  changes  of  the  sugars  in  the  plant 
during  its  growth. 

2.  To  notice  the  changes  which  the  cane  undergoes  after  reaching 
this  maximum  stage  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  its  saccharine  matter  : 
first,  while  standing  in  the  field  untouched  ;  second,  standing  stripped  two 
weeks ;  third,  cut  and  lying  under  shelter. 

3.  To  ascertain  the  portion  of  the  stalk  richest  in  sugar. 

4.  To  study  the  effect  of  different  varieties  of  soils  on  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  sugar  in  the  cane. 

5.  To  determine  the  effect  of  freshly  manured  soils  on  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  sugar  in  sorghum. 

6.  To  compare  the  different  varieties  of  sorghum  as  sugar  produc¬ 
ing  plants. 

These  examinations  were  conducted  in  the  following  manner : 

On  the  dates  specified,  ten  average  stalks  were  selected  from  the 
given  field,  stripped,  topped  just  below  the  uppermost  leaf,  and  cut  off  one 
joint  above  ground.  The  stripped  and  topped  cane  was  crushed  in  a  thor¬ 
oughly  cleansed  Victor  mill.  The  juice  was  collected  in  a  bottle  and 
after  being  cooled  down  to  20  0  c.,  the  sp.  gr.  was  noted,  then  10  c.c.  were 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


5 


put  into  a  graduated  cylinder  for  the  estimation  of  grape  sugar,  and  io  c.c. 
were  put  in  a  beaker  for  determining  the  amount  of  cane  sugar. 

For  the  estimation  of  grape  sugar  the  io  c.c.  measured  off  for  this 
purpose  were  diluted  so  as  to  measure  exactly  ioo  c.c.  and  the  grape 
sugar  then  determined  by  Fehling’s  solution. 

The  portion  reserved  for  cane  sugar  was  diluted,  12  drops  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  added,  and  the  whole  heated  over  a  water  bath  for  one 
hour.  The  mixture  was  then  allowed  to  cool,  sodium  hydroxide  added  to 
alkaline  reaction,  diluted  to  500  c  c.,  and  the  total  amount  of  sugar 
determined  with  Fehling’s  solution.  The  difference  between  the  grape 
and  total  sugar  was  estimated  as  cane  sugar  by  multiplying  by  0.95. 

The  results  of  the  analyses  are  given  in  the  tables  which  follow: 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  AND  CHANGE  OF  SUGARS  IN  SORGHUM. 


Stage  of  Development. 

No. 

Date. 

Variety. 

Sp;,r 

Juice. 

Grape 

Sugar 

Cane 

Sugar 

Av.  of 
|  Cane 
Sugar. 

Beginning  to  head. 

1 

2 

Aug 

Aug. 

14,  ’80. 
10,  ’8 1. 

Orange. 

Amber. 

*-°55 

1.058 

1 

5-7 0 
8-39 

4.9O 

3-38 

4.I 

In  blossom. 

3 

Aug. 

25,  ’80. 

Orange. 

1.062 

6. 10 

7.  I  2 

7-77 

4 

Aug. 

10,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.066 

5-43 

8.42 

5 

Aug. 

14,  ’80. 

Amber. 

i  o65i  3-34 

io-75 

Seed  soft  and  milky. 

6 

Sept. 

6,  ’80. 

Orange. 

1.068 

5.00 

9-13 

7 

Aug. 

10,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.068 

4-25 

9.84 

8.S6 

8 

Aug. 

12,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.070 

3-75 

12.75 

9 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Orange. 

1.048 

6. 1 1 

3-71 

IO 

Sept. 

2,  ’81. 

Orange. 

1.048 

6.58 

5-  *9 

1 1 

Aug. 

25,  ’80. 

Amber. 

1.068 

2.47 

12.48 

1  2 

Sept. 

16,  ’80. 

Orange. 

1.065 

4.1 1 

9.76 

r3 

Aug. 

10,  ’81. 

Amber. 

I-°7  4 

365 

10. 10 

14 

Aug. 

12,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.074 

2.65 

1 3-3  7 

1 5 

Aug. 

16,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.070 

3-92 

1 1.89 

16 

Aug. 

16,  ’8i. 

Amber. 

1.072 

3.00 

13.66 

Seed  in  hardening 

17 

Aug. 

19,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.067 

346 

1 2.49 

dough. 

18 

Aug. 

19,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.074 

3.10 

13-^8 

”•95 

*9 

Aug. 

19,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.076 

2.97 

13.64 

20 

Aug. 

19,  ’8i. 

Amber. 

1. 070 

2.98 

1 2.80 

2 1 

Aug. 

19,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.070 

3.26 

12.52 

22 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Liberian- 

1.060 

3-6  7 

10. 24 

23 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.063 

2.6 1 

13-47 

24 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Amber. 

i-°56 

2. 18 

1 1. 14 

I 

25 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Chinese. 

1.052 

4i3 

8.60 

26 

Sept. 

6,  ’80. 

Amber. 

1.064 

2.13 

1 1.42 

27 

Sept. 

16,  ’80. 

Amber. 

U065 

2.79 

1 1.02 

Seed  ripe. 

28 

Oct. 

2,  ’80. 

Amber. 

1.069 

2.47 

10.06 

29 

Oct. 

6,  ’80. 

Orange. 

1.078 

4  02 

1 1.41 

1 1. 18 

30 

Sept. 

9,  ’8i. 

I.  I.  U. 

1.070 

2-93 

1 2  48 

3  1 

Sept. 

1,  ’81. 

Amber.  . 

1.070 

2.7 1 

10.77 

32 

Sept. 

2,  ’81. 

Amber. 

1.070 

2.61 

IO-57 

33 

Sept. 

5,  ’81. | 

Amber. 

1.067 

3*6 

1 1.76 

6  ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 

I 

The  analyses  made  in  1880,  numbers  x,  3,  5,  6,  11,  12,  26,  27,  28, 
and  29,  were  from  cane  grown  upon  the  University  farm. 

The  following  data  in  regard  to  the  planting  and  cultivation  of  the 
cane  were  furnished  by  G.  E.  Morrow,  Professor  of  Agriculture : 

Two  varieties,  Orange  and  Early  Amber;  seed  obtained  from  Hedges. 
St.  Louis;  planted  by  hand,  May  14,  1880.  The  Orange  was  planted  in 
a  plot  of  nearly  one  acre  (.955)  in  24  rows  four  feet  apart,  in  hills  about 
four  feet  in  a  row.  The  Early  Amber  was  planted  in  a  plot  of  one  and 
one-half  acres  (1.48)  in  40  rows  three  and  one  half  feet  apart,  and  with 
hills  abont  same  distance  apart.  Each  plot  was  on  good  prairie  soil  which 
had  been  in  corn  two  years,  following  a  liberal  application  of  barn-yard 
manure.  The  plots  received  ordinary  field  culture — a  two-horse  corn  cul¬ 
tivator, — except  hand-hoeing  and  thinning  to  four  or  five  stalks  when  ten 
to  twelve  inches  high.  The  suckers  were  not  removed.  The  Orange  av¬ 
eraged  about  seven  feet  in  height,  and  over  an  inch  in  diameter  at  base. 
The  Early  Amber  averaged  over  nine  feet  in  height,  and  rather  less  than 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  base.  The  canes  were  cut  about 
six  inches  from  the  ground.  Of  the  Orange,  from  two  to  three  feet  of  the 
top  was  taken  off ;  of  the  Early  Amber,  rather  more  than  three  feet. 

An  analysis  was  made  of  the  soil  on  which  these  two  varieties  of 
cane  grew,  and  also  of  its  subsoil  and  of  a  virgin  prairie  soil  adjoining. 

The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  these  analyses.  No.  1  was 
prairie  soil,  No.  2  the  soil  on  which  the  cane  grew,  No.  3  its  subsoil: 


Soil. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

Organic  matter . 

Silicic  acid . 

Sesquioxide  of  iron . 

Alumina  . 

Manganese . 

Phosphate  of  lime . 

Carbonate  of  lime . 

Carbonate  of  magnesia . 

Potash . 

Soda . 

Sulphuric  acid . 

Soluble  matter  found . 

Organic  matter . 

Silicic  acid . 

Alumina  with  trace  of  iron 

Lime . 

Magnesia...- . 

Potash . 

Soda . 

Manganese . 

Phosphoric  acid . 

Insoluble  matter  found  ... 


1.9414 

2.4SS0 

0.079S 

0.0617 

1-8367 

I-4SI7 

1  -4775 

0.5700 

0.1793 

0.2200 

0.1683 

0.2103 

0.3S35 

0.5845 

0.5244 

0-6757 

0-0733 

7 . 

0.0785 

0.0177 

0.021 1 

0.1403 

0.1519 

6.8327 

4.1150 

6.0700 

72.1765 

6S.7127 

12  7*43 

12.0520 

0.5729 

0.7721 

0.4893 

0.4S31 

3.0041 

. 

3-0331 

0.5120 

0.6344 

0.0093 

0.0S47 

0-1933 

. 

0.1553 

92-7S67 

99.6194 

99.6194 

99.5 10S 

3-755 1 
0.0975 
1.2650 
I-7I5° 

. 

0.1152 
1 .35 1 5 
0.7140 
0.0505 
0.0970 
0.2137 

7-5I34 

9.2745 

8-9549 

6S.0224 

9.3156 

0.6444 

0.4S36 

2.4561 

0.5664 

0.262S 

9I-9974 

90.7062 

99.5 1  oS 

99.9S07 

99.9S07 

Analyses  Nos.  2,  4,  7,  and  13,  were  made  from  cane  grown  upon  the 
farm  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Cushman,  two  miles  south  of  Urbana.  The  field  on 
which  this  cane  was  planted  had  grown  seven  consecutive  crops  of  sor¬ 
ghum,  without  manure.  It  was  high  prairie  land  sloping  towards  the 
south.  Seed  planted  April  25. 

The  cane  of  Nos.  8  and  14  was  grown  about  one  and  one-half  miles 
N.  E.  of  Urbana,  on  timber  land.  The  field  had  been  used  as  a  barn¬ 
yard  previous  to  its  being  planted  with  cane  and  was  therefore  richly 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


7 


manured.  The  seed  came  from  Minnesota  through  Mr.  Le  Due,  ex-Com- 
missioner  of  Agriculture.  The  seed  was  planted  the  first  week  in  May. 
Cultivated  as  usual  for  corn. 

Results  Nos.  15  and  16  were  obtained  from  cane  grown  three  miles 
south  of  Champaign,  on  virgin  prairie.  Eight  rows  were  planted  along 
the  roadside,  bounded  on  the  outer  side  by  the  road  itself  and  the  inner 
by  a  tall,  dense  hedge-fence.  Mr.  Holmes,  the  owner  of  the  cane,  said 
the  seed  came  from  Mississippi  and  was  planted  the  last  week  In  April. 
Land  gradually  rising  from  a  slough  near  by.  Two  varieties  of  heads 
were  present  in  this  cane  :  the  panicles  of  one  (analysis  No.  15)  were  clus¬ 
tered  and  erect ;  those  of  the  other  (No.  16)  were  spreading  with  pedicels 
drooping. 

No.  21,  University  farm.  Volunteer  cane,  from  cane  grown  on  the 
field  last  year. 

The  cane  from  which  analyses  Nos.  17,  18,  19,  and  20  were  made, 
was  grown  upon  timber  land  about  three  miles  N.  E.  of  Urbana.  The 
seed  probably  came  from  Minnesota. 

No.  17.  Cane  grown  by  Mr.  E.  Bishop.  Field  ten  years  in  cultiva¬ 
tion,  manured  three  or  four  years  ago.  Seed  planted  about  the  middle  of 
May.  Rows  3-^  feet  apart  in  hills  3  feet  apart.  An  average  of  eight  stalks 
in  a  hill.  Cane  small.  Nos.  18  and  19,  cane  grown  by  Christ.  Shuman. 
No.  18  was  on  high  land,  twelve  years  in  cultivation  and  had  never  been 
manured.  An  average  of  five  stalks  in  a  hill.  Growth  of  cane  medium. 
No.  19  was  on  low  land,  four  years  in  cultivation.  Average  of  eight  stalks 
in  a  hill.  Cane  large  and  thrifty. 

No.  20.  Cane  grown  by  Sam’l  Wilson,  on  land  four  years  in  culti¬ 
vation.  Hills  3x3^-  feet  apart.  An  average  of  eight  stalks  in  a  hill. 
Field  on  the  top  of  a  small  hill. 

Analyses  Nos.  9,  10,  22,  31,  and  32.  were  made  in  Macoupin  county, 
Illinois,  Nos.  9,  22,  and  3r  from  cane  raised  about  two  miles  north  of  Vir- 
den,  by  Mr.  Chas.  Rauch,  and  Nos.  10  and  32  one  mile  west  of  Girard, 
by  Mr.  D.  C.  Ashbaugh.  The  prairie  soil  in  this  county  is  very  black, 
deep,  and  “mucky.”  No.  9.  Cane  grown  on  timber  land.  Seed  planted 
May. 1 2,  1881.  Hills  3  by  3,  an  average  of  five  stalks  in  a  hill.  No.  22. 
Volunteer  cane.  Prairie  land.  No.  31.  Prairie  land.  Seed  planted 
first  part  of  May.  No.  32.  Prairie  land  ;  seed  planted  latter  part  of  May. 

The  results  of  experiment  No.  53  were  obtained  from  cane  grown  by 
Christ.  Lust,  about  a  mile  west  of  Monticello,  Piatt  county.  The  field 

was  timber  land — a  poor,  clayey  soil.  Seed  planted-  first  week  in  May. 

•  *  # 

Analyses  Nos.  23,  24,  and  25  were  made  of  the  juice  of  sorghum 
grown  upon  the  so-called  Mississippi  sand-lands  near  Oquawka,  Illinois. 
No.  23  was  from  cane  grown  by  I)r.  Park,  one  mile  east  of  Oquawka. 
Nos.  24  and  25  were  made  from  cane  grown  by  Tom  Ricketts,  two  miles 
N.  E.  of  same  place. 

Development  of  sugar.  Analyses  Nos.  5,  1 1,  26,  27,  and  28  were  made 
from  the  same  field  on  the  dates  specified,  and  show  conclusively  that  the 
cane  sugar  reached  its  maximum  quantity  when  the  seed  was  in  the  “hard¬ 
ening  dough,”  and  that  it  afterwards  gradually  diminished.  The  same 
fact  appears  on  comparing  the  average  under  each  division  in  the  table. 


8 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


Effect  of  stripping  and  allowing  to  stand.  On  October  2d,  1880, 
an  analysis  was  made  of  the  juice  of  cane,  which  had  been  stripped  on  the 
1 8th  of  September, — the  cane  not  otherwise  disturbed — with  the  following 
result : 


Specific  gravity  of  juice . 1.074 

Grape  sugar . .  1.82  per  cent. 

Cane  sugar . 13. 1 1  “ 

This  subject  needs  further  investigation. 

Change  of  sugar  after  cutting  the  cane.  On  October  23,  1880,  an 
analysis  was  made  of  the  juice  of  the  Orange  cane  which  had  been  cut, 
stripped,  and  topped  October  2  and  placed  under  shelter  until  examined. 
Juice  whitish. 


Specific  gravity 
Grape  sugar. .  . 
Cane  sugar. .  . . 


1. 091 

14.66  per  cent. 


3-55 


a 


A  sample  of  cane,  cut  August  25,  1880,  without  being  stripped  and 
topped,  was  preserved  in  a  warm  room  where  it  had  become  dry  long 
before  it  was  examined.  On  April  3,  1881,  it  was  analyzed  and  showed 
12  per  cent,  of  grape  sugar  and  no  trace  of  cane  sugar. 

Comparison  of  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  cane.  The  two 
following  analyses  were  made  to  show  what  part  of  the  cane  is  richest  in 
sugar : 

Amber — October  2,  1880.  Juice  obtained  from  the  upper  half  of  the 
stalks  after  topping  as  usual. 

Specific  gravity. . . .  1.069 

Grape  sugar . 2.e|  per  cent.  , 

Cane  sugar . 9.07  “ 

Amber — October  2,  1880.  Juice  obtained  from  the  lower  half  of 
stalks. 

Specific  gravity .  1.070 

Grape  sugar .  1.94  per  cent. 

Cane  sugar . n.64  “ 

t 

Effects  of  soils.  The  following  analyses  were  made  to  study  the 
effect  of  ‘different  varieties  of  soil  upon  the  production  of  sugar  in  sor_  \ 
ghum.  But  as  other  circumstancs,  as  locality  from  which  seed  was  ob¬ 
tained,  time  of  planting,  and  manner  of  cultivation,  may  effect  the  amount 
of  sugar,  many  more  investigations  would  have  to  be  made  before  definite 
conclusions  could  be  reached.  The  table,  however,  shows  that  sorghum 
can  be  grown  successfully  on  all  varieties  of  soil  specified. 


XPERIMENYS  ON  SORGHUM. 


9 


Table  showing  the  effects  of  different  soils  on  the  development  of 
sugar  in  sorghum  : 


V ariety  of  soil. 

No. 

Years  in 
Cultivation. 

Fertilization. 

Variety 
of  Cane. 

Sp;,r 

Juice. 

Grape 

Sugar. 

Cane 

Sugar. 

Av’ge. 

- 

1 

27 

Manured  3  yrs.  ago. 

Amber. 

i.gu8 

2.47 

I  2  48 

Grape. 

2.94 

2 

7 

No  manure. 

Amber. 

1.074 

3-65 

I  O.  IO 

Prairie. 

3 

27 

Manured  4  yrs.  aso. 

Amber. 

1.070 

3.26 

12.52 

Cane. 

4 

Unknown. 

No  manure. 

Amber. 

1.07 

2.7  1 

IO.77 

11.28 

5 

Very  old. 

No  manure. 

Amber. 

1.07 

2.6 1 

IO.51 

Virgin 

6 

• 

No  manure. 

Amber. 

1.07 

3-92 

I  I.89 

Grape. 

40 

prairie. 

7 

No  manure 

Amber. 

1.072 

3.00 

i3-65 

Cane. 

12.77 

8 

Unknown. 

Barn-yard  manure. 

Amber. 

1.074 

2.65 

1 3- 3  7 

9 

10 

Manured  4  yrs.  ago 

Amber. 

1.067 

3- 461 

1 2.49 

Grape. 

Timber  land. 

10 

1 1 

1 2 

4 

No  manure. 
No  manure. 

Amber. 

Amber. 

1.074 

1.076 

3.10 

2.97 

13.18 

13.64 

3-°7 

Cane. 

1 2 

4 

No  manure. 

Amber. 

1.07 

2.98 

1 2. 80 

1 2.87 

13 

Many. 

No  manure 

Amber. 

1.066 

3.r6 

1 1.76 

Mississippi 

14 

Amber. 

1.063 

2.61 

13-47 

Grape. 

2.39 

sand  land. 

*5 

Amber. 

1.056 

2. 18 

11. 14 

Cane. 

12.3 

Effect  of  Manure. — To  ascertain  the  effect  of  manure  a  field  was  se¬ 
lected  which  had  been  used  as  a  barn-yard  for  several  years.  A  part  of 
the  cane  was  planted  directly  on  the  rotten  manure  pile.  An  analysis  was 
made  of  a  sample  taken  from  this  part  of  the  field,  as  well  as  of  a  part 
away  from  the  manure  pile.  The  seed  in  each  case  was  in  the  “  harden¬ 
ing  dough.”  The  following  is  the  result  of  the  analysis : 

Manured — Sp.  gr.  1.063.  Grape  sugar  2.65.  Cane  sugar  10.89. 

Unmanured  “  1.074.  “  “  2.65.  “  13.37. 

Variety  of  Cane. — From  the  table  it  appears  that  the  Amber  is  best 
adapted  for  the  production  of  cane  sugar.  The  Orange  and  Liberian  can 
also  be  employed  advantageously  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  as  they 
mature  later.  Tfceir  yield  is  greater  per  acre,  and  this  fact  no  doubt  would 
compensate  for  the  less  proportion  of  cane  sugar  to  grape  sugar  contained 
in  them.  Analysis  No.  25  of  the  Chinese  cane  seems  to  indicate  that  it 
would  be  unfit  for  the  production  of  crystallizable  sugar. 

PROXIMATE  ANALYSIS  OF  SORGHUM  CANE. 

An  average  portion  of  the  Orange  cut  at  the  same  time — October  6. 
as  that  used  in  experiment  29  was  reserved,  with  tops  and  leaves  still  re¬ 
maining,  for  the  analysis. 

The  leaves  and  two  feet  of  tops  were  removed,  and  cross  sections 
taken  between  each  joint  of  the  remainder  of  the  stalks.  The  proximate 
principles  were  then  determined  according  to  the  following  scheme.  The 
sections,  as  soon  as  cut,  were  weighed  and  then  dried  in  a  water  oven, 
allowed  to  cool  in  the  air,  weighed,  finally  pulverized,  and  put  in  a  stop¬ 
pered  bottle.  Of  the  dried  substance,  ten  grams  were  required  for  sugar, 
fiber,  starch,  gum  and  vegetable  acids  ;  one  gram  for  hygroscopic  water 
and  ash  ;  one  gram  for  total  albuminoids  ;  five  grams  for  oil..  The  gram 


2 


IO 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


of  dried  cane  reserved  for  water  and  ash  was  heated  in  an  oven  at  i  io° 
C.  until  its  weight  was  constant.  It  was  then  ignited  and  the  ash  weighed- 
The  ten  grams  for  the  estimation  of  sugar,  etc.,  were  macerated  with  water 
in  a  mortar,  the  water  decanted,  and  this  process  continued  several  times, 
the  decanted  liquids  being  filtered  by  Bunsen’s  method,  and  finally  the 
residue  was  thrown  on  the  filter  and  washed  until  the  filtrate  measured 
one  litre,  ioo  c.c.  of  this  solution  was  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness  on  a 
water  bath,  then  the  desiccation  completed  by  passing  a  current  of  dry 
air  upon  the  residue  by  means  of  an  aspirator,  the  temperature  of  the  sub¬ 
stance  ranging  in  the  meantime  between  90°  and  ioo°  C.  The  residue  was 
then  weighed,  incinerated,  and  weight  of  ash  noted. 

Albuminoids . — 400  c.c.  of  the  aqueous  extract  were  evaporated  to  a 
syrup  on  the  water-bath,  calcined  gypsum  added,  the  whole  then  dried  and 
the  residue  ignited  with  soda  lime. 

500  c.c.  of  the  aqueous  extract  were  rapidly  evaporated  nearly  to 
dryness,  and  the  residue  exhausted  with  alcohol  of  87  percent,  bv  repeated 
boilings  with  fresh  portions  of  the  solvent  as  long  as  it  was  colored.  The 
liquids  were  filtered,  the  residue  thrown  upon  the  filter  and  washed  with 
hot  alcohol,  and  the  washings  added  to  the  filtrate.  Water  was  added  to 
the  filtrate,  the  alcohol  expelled  by  heat,  and  then  the  solution  diluted  to 
200  c.c. 

Grape  Sugar. — 100  c.c.  of  this  solution  were  reserved  for  the  estima¬ 
tion  of  grape  sugar.  The  remainder  was  acidulated  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  boiled  to  convert  the  cane  into  grape  sugar. 

Ca?ie  Sugar. — The  cane  sugar  was  then  estimated  with  Fehling’s 
solution,  as  usual. 

Gum  and  Vegetable  Acids — The  residue  insoluble  in  alcohol  was  dried 
at  100  C.,  weighed,  and  then  incinerated.  This  ash  and  the  soluble  albu¬ 
minoids  were  subtracted  from  the  total  amount  of  residue,  and  the  remain¬ 
der  estimated  as  gum  and  vegetable  acids. 

The  residue  left  after  extracting  the  ten  grams  of  cane  with  water 
was  washed  with  alcohol  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid  to  dissolve  the 
albuminoids,  transferred  to  a  beaker,  and  diluted  to  200  c.  c.  5  c.  c.  of 
normal  sulphuric  acid  were  added,  and  the  whole  boiled  for  an  hour  on  the 
water-bath,  then  filtered  through  Bunsen’s  filter.  The  filter  was  also  cut 
into  shreds  and  boiled  with  water  containing  one  per  cent,  of  sulphuric' 
acid,  to  dissolve  any  starch  remaining  on  it.  After  filtering,  the  two 
filtrates  were  added,  and  the  starch  estimated  from  an  alliquot  portion  by 
conversion  into  glucose. 

The  method  was  as  follows  :  The  starch  solution  was  diluted  to  500 
c.c.  Three  separate  portions  of  50  c.c.  each  were  transferred  to  prescrip¬ 
tion  bottles,  10  c.c.  normal  acid  added,  the  bottles  were  then  stoppered 
with  rubber  stoppers  firmly  tied,  and  placed  in  a  salt-bath  and  boiled  re¬ 
spectively  for  three,  four,  and  six  hours.  The  contents  of  the  bottles  were 
then  neutralized,  diluted,  and  starch  calculated  from  the  amount  of  grape 
sugar  present.  The  solution  boiled  six  hours  had  0.02  per  cent,  more  starch 
than  that  boiled  four  hours.  Three  hours’  boiling  did  not  convert  all  of 
the  starch  into  grape  sugar.  The  residue  from  which  the  starch  was  taken 
was  boiled  with  sodium  hydroxide,  thrown  upon  a  weighed  filter  and  re¬ 
peatedly  washed  with  the  same  solution,  then  washed  with  hot  water,  and 
finally  with  alcohol  and  then  with  ether.  The  washed  residue  was  dried 
at  no°  C.  and  weighed,  then  incinerated,  the  weight  of  ash  subtracted 
from  the  former  weight,  and  the  difference  estimated  as  fiber.  The  gram 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


reserved  for  the  albuminoids  was  ignited  with  soda-lime,  and  albuminoids 
determined  as  usual. 

The  oil  was  extracted  by  ether  from  five  grams  of  the  dried  cane. 
The  total  water  was  estimated  by  adding  the  per  cent,  of  loss  of  the 
air  dried  cane  and  the  hygroscopic  water. 

RESULTS. 

Composition  of  stalks  of  Orange  cane  in  one  hundred  parts  : 


Water . -76.58 

Grape  sugar. ...  .  3.00 

Cane  sugar . • .  9.77 

Starch .  4. 1 2 

Fiber. .  4.54 

Oil . 0.07 

Gums  and  vegetable  acids .  0.24 

Soluble  albuminoids .  0.23 

Insoluble .  0.16 

Soluble  ash .  0.68 

Insoluble  ash . 0.06 


99-45 

ASH. 

The  ash  from  the  remaining  dried  cane  was  analyzed  by  the  following 
method :  The  cane  was  incinerated  at  a  low  heat,  pulverized,  dried  and 
put  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 

Chlorine. — Two  grams  of  the  ash  were  exhausted  with  water,  silver- 
nitrate  added  to  the  extract  and  the  whole  acidified  with  nitric  acid.  The 
precipitate  of  chloride  of  silver  was  collected  upon  a  filter,  dried,  ignited, 
weighed,  and  the  chlorine  calculated  in  the  usual  manner.  The  filtrate 
was  treated  with  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  silver  chloride  removed  and 
the  solution  preserved. 

Silica. — The  ash  insoluble  in  water  was  treated  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  brought  to  dryness,  moistened  with  hydrochloric  acid,  water  added, 
and  the  residue  thrown  on  a  weighed  filter.  The  filter  and  its  contents 
were  heated  at  1600  C  until  of  constant  weight,  then  ignited  and  the  silica 
weighed.  The  loss  found  between  the  two  weights  was  called  char-coal. 

The  solution  from  which  the  chlorine  had  been  precipitated  and  the 
filtrate  from  the  silica  were  mixed,  and  the  whole  diluted  to  200  c.c.,  and 
well  shaken.  50  c.c.  of  this  solution  were  reserved  for  the  estimation  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  alkalies,  50  c  c.  for  phosphoric  acid,  mangan'ese,  lime, 
and  magnesia. 

Iron. — The  remaining  100  c.c.  were  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
heated  upon  a  water  bath  until  the  chlorine  was  expelled  ;  then  transferred 
to  a  flask,  water  and  sulphuric  acid  added,  and  the  iron  reduced  with  hy¬ 
drogen,  generated  by  zinc  suspended  in  the  liquid,  by  means  of  a  platinum 
wire.  To  facilitate  the  operation,  a  strip  of  platinum  was  introduced  into 
the  flask  and  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  zinc.  After  the  reduc¬ 
tion,  the  iron  was  estimated  by  a  standard  solution  of  potassium  perman 
ganate. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — A  solution  of  ferric  chloride  was  added  to  the  por¬ 
tion  reserved  for  phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  in  sufficient  cpiantity  for  the  iron 
to  combine  with  all  the  phosphoric  acid  present.  Sodium  carbonate  was 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


I  2 

I 

added  until  the  last  drop  caused  a  precipitate,  which  did  not  re-dissolve 
upon  agitation.  The  mixture  was  then  heated,  a  hot  solution  of  sodium 
acetate  added,  and  the  whole  brought  to  the  boiling  temperature,  filtered, 
and  washed  with  hot  water. 

The  residue  was  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  and  concentrated  to  about 
io  c.c.  ;  a  nitric  acid  solution  of  molybdate  of  ammonia  was  added  in  ex¬ 
cess,  and  the  mixture  allowed  to  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  24  hours.  The 
precipitate  was  collected  on  a  filter,  the  beaker  rinsed,  and  the  contents 
ot  the  filter  washed  with  a  mixture  Of  the  molybdate  solution  and  water. 
The  precipitate  was  dissolved  in  the  smallest  quantity  of  ammonia.  Any 
of  the  phospho-molybdate  precipitate  remaining  in  the  beaker  was  dissolv¬ 
ed  in  a  mixture  containing  3  parts  of  water  and  1  of  ammonia  and  thrown 
upon  the  filter  ;  finally,  the  filter  was  washed  with  the  ammoniacal  water. 
The  filtrate  was  boiled,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  precipitated  with  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  ammonium-chloride,  magnesium ’sulphate'and  ammonia,  made  ac¬ 
cording  to  Fresenius’  formula.  After  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  12 
hours,  the  precipitate  was  collected  on  a  filter,  washed  with  ammonia 
water,  and  the  volume  of  the  filtrate  and  washings  noted. 

The  precipitate  was  ignited  in  a  platinum  crucible,  a  little  nitric  acid 
added,  and  again  ignited  to  oxidize  the  charred  matter  present,  cooled, 
and  weighed.  As  ammonia-magnesia-phosphate  is  soluble  in  about  54,- 
000  parts  of  ammoniacal  water,  .003  of  a  gram  was  added  to  this  weight, 
as  the  filtrate  measured  a  little  over  150  c.c.  The  phosphoric  acid  was 
then  calculated  from  this  weight  of  pyrophosphate  of  magnesium. 

Manganese. — The  solution  from  which  the  iron  and  phosphoric  were 
precipitated  was  treated  with  a  few  drops  of  bromine,  and  boiled  to  pre¬ 
cipitate  the  manganese.  The  precipitate  was  collected  upon  a  filter  and 
thoroughly  washed,  then  strongly  ignited,  and  weighed. 

Lime. — The  above  filtrate  was  concentrated,  and  while  hot  a  little 
ammonia  added,  and  then  an  excess  of  ammonium  oxalate,  to  precipitate 
the  lime.  The  mixture  was  allowed  to  stand  12  hours.  The  precipitate 
was  then  collected  upon  a  filter,  washed,  dried,  and  ignited  in  a  platinum 
crucible.  After  the  filter  was  reduced  to  ash,  carbonic  acid  was  passed 
over  the  ignited  lime,  to  reconvert  any  oxide  formed  into  carbonate. 
From  the  weight  of  calcium-carbonate  thus  obtained  the  per  cent,  of  lime 
was  calculated. 

Magnesia. — The  filtrate  from  the  lime  was  concentrated,  ammonia 
added  in  excess,  and  then  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  soda  to  precipitate 
the  magnesia  present.  This  precipitate  and  its  filtrate  were  treated  the 
same  as  the  corresponding  one,  the  estimation  of  phosphoric  acid.  The 
magnesia' was  calculated  from  the  amount  of  pyrophosphate  of  magnesia 
found.. 

Sulphuric  Acid. — The  50  c.c.  of  the  solution  reserved  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  were  boiled,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  precipitated,  with  a  slight  excess 
of  barium-chloride.  The  precipitate  was  collected  upon  a  filter,  washed, 
ignited  and  weighed. 

Potassa. — The  above  solution  was  treated,  after  concentration  on  a 
water-bath,  with  ammonia  and  ammonium-carbonate  as  long  as  any  pre¬ 
cipitate  was  formed,  digested  on  a  water  bath,  filtered,  and  the  contents 
of  the  filter  carefully  washed.  The  filtrate  and  washings  were  evaporated 
to  dryness  on  a  water  bath,  and  the  residue  ignited  to  expel  ammoniacal 
salts.  This  residue  was  then  treated  with  five  and  one-half  times  its 
weight  of  pure  oxalic  acid  in  the  form  of  a  concentrated  solution,  then 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


13 


evaporated  to  dryness,  and  again  ignited  to  dull  redness.  The  ignited 
residue  was  treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water,  thrown  upon  a 
filter,  washed  with  hot  water,  hydrochloric  acid  added  to  the  filtrate,  the 
mixture  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  gently  ignited,  and  the  weight  of  the 
alkaline  chlorides  ascertained. 

The  separation  of  the  alkalies  was  effected  with  platinic  chloride,  as 
follows  : 

The  residue  of  alkalies  was  dissolved  in  a  little  water,  and  enough 
platinic  chloride  added  to  combine  with  the  alkalies  estimated  as  potas¬ 
sium  salt.  This  mixture  was  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness  over  a  water 
bath,  care  being  taken  not  to  boil  the  water.  A  mixture  of  six  volumes 
of  alcohol  and  one  of  ether  was  poured  over  the  residue,  and  the  whole 
allowed  to  stand  several  hours  in  a  covered  vessel,  with  occasional  stirring. 
The  insoluble  potassio-platinic  chloride  was  transferred  to  an  equipoised 
filter,  washed  with  alcohol  and  ether  mixed,  and  finally  dried  at  ioo°  C., 
and  weighed. 

Soda. — From  the  weight  of  the  double  potassium  chloride,  the 
amount  of  the  potassium  chloride  was  ascertained.  The  weight  was  sub¬ 
tracted  from  the  weight  of  the  combined  alkali  chlorides,  and  the  remain¬ 
der  called  sodium  chloride,  and  calculated  as  soda. 

Carbonic  Acid. — One  gram  of  the  ash  was  transferred  to  a  Rose  car¬ 
bonic  acid  apparatus,  and  the  carbonic  acid  estimated  by  loss.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  were  the  results  obtained  : 

Composition  of  Ash. — 


Silica . 27.9 1 

Iron  oxide . .  o.  14 

Phosphoric  acid .  5.37 

Manganese  oxide .  0.89 

Lime . 6.82 

Magnesia .  4.64 

Sulphuric  acid .  6.23 

Potassa . f .  46.48 

Soda .  0.98 

Sodium  chloride .  0.42 


99.88 

ANALYSIS  OF  SORGHUM  SEED. 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  the  seed  was  ground  as  fine  as  possible  in 
an  iron  mortar,  and  was  preserved  in  a  glass-stoppered  bottle. 

The  following  portions  of  the  ground  seed  were  taken  : 

10  grams,  for  the  estimation  of  sugar,  dextrine,  starch  and  fiber. 

1  gram,  “  “  water  and  ash. 

1  “  “  “  albuminoids. 

1  “  “  “  oil. 

1  “  “  “  tannin. 

Sugar,  etc. — The  ten  grams  reserved  for  sugar,  etc.,  were  rubbed  up 
thoroughly  with  water  in  a  mortar,  then  transferred  to  a  filter  and  washed 
well  with  water. 

Solution=A. 

Residue=  B. 

The  solution,  A,  was  concentrated  to  about  10  c.c.  in  a  porcelain 


i4 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


dish  on  a  water  bath,  then  transferred  into  a  strong  prescription  bottle  and 
washed  with  about  io  c.c.  of  water,  and  the  washings  added.  5  c.c.  of 
normal  sulphuric  acid. were  added,  the  bottle  closed  with  a  rubber  stop¬ 
per  securely  tied.  The  bottle  and  its  contents  were  then  transferred  to 
a  salt  bath  and  boiled  for  six  hours.  After  cooling,  the  contents  of  the 
bottle  were  transferred  to  a  graduated  cylinder,  neutralized  and  diluted  to 
100  c.c.,  the  coloring  matter  precipitated  with  acetate  of  lead,  and,  after 
thoroughly  mixing,  the  whole  was  allowed  to  stand  until  the  precipitate 
had  settled  to  the  bottom.  A  portion  of  the  clear  liquid  was  then  trans¬ 
ferred  to  a  burette  and  dropped  into  10  c.c.  of  Fehling’s  solution,  diluted 
four  times,  and  at  the  boiling  temperature,  until  the  whole  of  the  copper 
had  been  precipitated  as  cuprous  oxide.  This  point  was  determined  by 
filtering  a  small  quantity  from  time  to  time,  acidifying  the  filtrate  with 
acetic  acid,  and  testing  for  copper  with  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium.  The 
number  of  c.c.  of  the  sugar  solution  it  took  was  noted,  and  the  sugar  and 
dextrine  determined  by  the  following  proportion : 

1.  The  number  of  c.c.  it  took  to  precipitate  copper  solution  :  total 
number  of  c.c.  :  :  .05  (grains  of  grape  sugar  required  to  precipitate  10 
c.c.  of  Fehling’s  solution)  :  x. 

X  multiplied  by  0.95  will  give  the  grams  of  sugar  in  ro  grams  of  seed. 

The  residue,  B,  was  washed  on  the  filter  with  alcohol  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  finally  with  water,  to  dissolve  the  gluten.  Then  the 
residue  was  washed  off  the  filter  into  a  beaker  diluted  to  about  400  c.c. 
5  c.c.  of  sulphuric  acid  added,  and  the  whole  boiled  on  a  water  bath  until 
the  liquid  had  no  milky  appearance.  It  was  then  filtered  through  an 
equipoised  filter  and  washed. 

Solution=C. 

Residue=D. 

Solution  C  was  diluted  to  500  c.c.  50  c.c.  of  this  solution  were  trans¬ 
ferred  to  a  prescription  bottle  and  then  treated  as  above  for  sugar  and 
dextrine.  From  the  grape  sugar  obtained,  the  amount  of  starch  was  cal¬ 
culated. 

Residue  D  was  boiled  with  hot  sodium  hydroxide,  again  thrown  upon 
the  filter  and  washed  with  the  same  solvent  ;  afterwards,  with  hot  water, 
then  with  alcohol,  and  finally  with  ether.  The  washed  residue  was  dried 
at  H9°C.,  weighed,  ignited,  and  the  amount  of  ash  deducted.  The  re¬ 
mainder  was  estimated  as  fiber. 

Water. — For  the  estimation  of  water,  the  ground  seed  was  weighed 
in  a  glass-stoppered  test  tube.  After  weighing,  the  glass  stopper  was  re¬ 
placed  by  a  rubber  one,  through  which  passed  two  glass  tubes,  bent  at 
right  angles.  One  of  these  tubes  was  connected  with  an  aspirator ;  the 
other,  with  a  calcium  chloride  tube  and  a  sulphuric  acid  drying  bottle. 
The  test  tube  and  its  contents  were  then  placed  in  an  opening  of  a  drying 
oven,  whose  temperature  was  between  100  and  iio°  C.  During  the  opera¬ 
tion,  a  current  of  air,  passing  through  the  sulphuric  acid  and  calcium 
chloride  tube,  thus  drying  it,  was  drawn  into  the  tube  and  the  moisture 
sucked  out  by  means  of  the  aspirator.  When  the  weight  became  constant, 
the  loss  was  estimated  as  water. 

Ash. — The  contents  of  the  tube  were  transferred  to  a  platinum  cruci¬ 
ble,  incinerated,  and  ash  weighed. 

Albuminoids. — One  gram  of  the  ground  seed  was  ignited  with  soda 
lime.  The  substance  was  intimately  mixed  with  a  portion  of  soda  lime 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


*5 


sufficient  to  fill  a  14-inch  combustion  tube  two-thirds  full.  About  two 
inches  of  the  tube  were  filled  with  soda-lime,  then  the  mixture  of  soda 
lime  and  substance  added,  the  mortar  rinsed  with  soda-lime,  and  finally 
the  rinsings  and  enough  soda  lime  added  to  nearly  fill  the  tube.  A  plug 
of  asbestus  was  put  in,  and  the  tube  gently  tapped  to  insure  an  air  passage 
throughout  its  length. 

Will’s  bulbs  were  charged  with  a  deci-normal  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 
The  tube  being  placed  in  the  combustion  furnace  was  connected  with  the 
bulbs.  The  fore  part  of  the  tube,  containing  the  soda-lime  only,  was 
heated  to  redness,  then  heat  applied,  one  jet  at  a  time,  along  the  entire 
length  of  the  tube,  care  being  taken  that  the  combustion  was  completed 
in  that  portion  of  the  tube  where  heat  was  applied  before  other  jets  were 
turned  on,  and  also  that  the  combustion  was  not  too  rapid.  After  the 
combustion  was  ended,  the  contents  of  the  bulbs  were  transferred  to  a 
beaker,  tincture  of  litmus  added,  and  the  excess  of  acid  titrated  with  a 
deci-normal  solution  of  potassa.  The  amount  of  ammonia  found  to  be 
present  was  calculated  as  nitrogen,  The  nitrogen  was  multiplied  by  6.25, 
and  the  result  called  albuminoids. 

Oil. — The  one  gram  of  ground  seed  reserved  for  the  estimation  of  oil 
was  placed  in  a  short  test-tube,  the  bottom  of  which  was  drawn  out  in  the 
shape  of  a  cone,  with  a  small  opening  at  the  apex.  A  small  filter 
placed  in  the  cone  kept  any  of  the  substance  from  passing  through  the 
opening.  The  tube  was  suspended  in  a  small  flask,  aud  this  stoppered 
with  a  cork  through  which  a  long  glass  tube  passed.  The  whole  was 
placed  in  a  water  bath,  ether  (-J-  oz.)  put  in  the  outer  tube,  and  heat  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  water  bath  until  the  temperature  of  the  water  boiled  the  ether. 
This  operation  was  continued  for  half  an  hour,  the  percolate  transferred 
to  small  weighed  beaker,  ether  evaporated  and  the  beaker  and  its  contents 
dried  at  ioo°  C.,  and  then  weighed. 

Tannin. — One  gram  of  the  pulverized  seed  was  digested  with  hot 
water  for  several  hours,  and  the  tannin  estimated  by  a  standard  solution 
of  gelatine. 

Cojnposition  of  Sorghum  Seed — Orange. — 


Sugar .  0.56 

Starch . 63. 09 

Fiber . . • .  6.35 

Water .  12.51 

Ash .  0.64 

Albuminoids .  7.35 

Oil . *  *  *  .  3.08 

Tannin .  5.42 


Total . 99.00 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  SUGAR  M AKI NG.— 1880. 


The  grinding  of  cane  and  the  evaporation  of  the  juice  began  on  the 
1 8th  of  September.  It  was  the  intention  to  begin  working  up  the  Early 
Amber  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  had  reached  its  maximum  per  cent,  of 
cane  sugar,  and  thus  have  it  finished  by  the  time  the  Orange  was  ready  to 
harvest,  leaving  a  small  portion  for  subsequent  experiments.  Owing  to 
the  delay  in  the  arrival  of  machinery,  the  work  was  not  begun  until  the 
above  date. 

The  Early  Amber  had  been  ripe  for  over  two  weeks,  and  was  lying 
prostrate  from  the  effects  of  a  storm.  The  Orange  was  ripe.  The  object 
of  these  investigations  was  to  see  whether  any  method  of  manufacture  of 
the  juice  into  syrup  could  be  depended  upon  to  insure  the  subsequent 
crystalization  of  the  sugar. 

These  investigations  were  undertaken  with  a  view  to  the  simplicity  of 
machinery  used  and  to  the  economical  manufacture  of  the  syrup,  so  that 
they  could  be  of  practical  use  to  the  farmer,  should  any  of  the  experiments 
prove  successful. 

The  apparatus  used  for  crushing  and  pressing  the  cane,  was  a  two- 
horse  Victor  mill,  with  three  upright  rollers.  The  juice  was  evaporated  in 
Cook’s  evaporator,  with  furnace  attached,  and  of  the  size  recommended 
for  use  with  a  two  horse  crusher. 

The  remaining  apparatus  consisted  of  barrels,  tubs,  pails,  etc. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  heat  the  juice  for  skimming  and  clarification 
after  it  had  been  treated  by  chemicals,  in  the  pan  of  a  steam  boiler  of  the 
form  used  by  farmers  to  cook  food  for  cattle.  This  boiler  was  found  unfit 
for  the  purpose,  as  the  temperature  of  the  juice  could  not  be  raised  in  it 
above  108°  C.  A  small  pan  was  made,  similar  in  construction  to  a  Cook’s 
evaporator,  but  furnished  with  a  double  bottom.  The  steam  space  in  the 
bottom  was  about  two  inches  high,  and  was  connected  with  one  of.  the 
boilers  in  the  Chemical  Laboratory.  The  object  was  to  test  the  feasibility 
of  evaporating  the  juice  by  steam  under  pressure  with  shallow  pans. 

In  the  experiments  which  follow,  the  juice  was  either  evaporated  di¬ 
rectly  after  it  came  from  the  mill,  i.  e.,  without  the  use  of  re-agents,  or  af¬ 
ter  it  had  been  submitted  to  clarifying  processes.  In  the  first,  the  juice  is 
designated  in  the  experiment  as  not  clarified,  in  the  second,  as  clarified, 
defecated,  or  neutralized. 

THE  EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Early  Amber. — September  1 8.  Cane,  very  ripe  and  down  ;  juice, 
not  clarified, , — evaporated  to  a  sirup  which  upon  cooling  weighed  1 1  lbs.  to 
the  gallon.  It  was  of  a  light  color  and  had  a  distinct  sorghum  taste. 
Stalks,  stripped  and  topped,  yielded  48  per  cent,  of  juice,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.066.  The  sugar,  not  crystallized. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


17 


2.  Early  Amber. — September  20.  Juice  defecated.  As  the  juice 
was  brought  from  the  mill,  milk  of  lime  was  added,  little  at  a  time,  until 
a  piece  of  red  litmus  paper  would  change  to  purple  when  dipped  into  the 
juice.  Then  a  solution  of  tannic  acid  and  finally  gelatine  was  added.  The 
juice  was  then  boiled  and  well  skimmed,  and  concentrated  to  sirup.  The 
sirup  was  scorched  and  had  a  taste  of  extract  of  licorice.  A  small  portion 
of  the  sirup  evaporated  to  almost  candy,  was  readily  crystallized. 

3.  Early  Amber. — September  21.  Juice  not  clarified.  The  evapo¬ 

ration  was  continued  until  the  sirup  upon  cooling  weighed  n  lbs.  The 
sugar  did  not  crystallize.  ^ 

4.  Early  Amber. — September  22.  Juice  madie  alkaline  with  lime, 
and  then  neutralized  with  sulphate  of  alumina.  Concentrated  to  a  sirup 
that  weighed  when  cooled  between  11  and  u^lbs. :  sugar  crystallized. 

Before  expressing  the  juice  for  this  experiment  the  rollers  were  moved 
closer  together  and  the  cane  crushed  so  much  that  the  bagasse  as  it  came 
out  fell  in  pieces.  51  per  cent,  of  juice  was  obtained  with  a  specific  grav¬ 
ity  of  1.068.  One  row  of  cane  (0.037  acres)  was  taken  for  this  experiment, 
producing  23  gallons  juice  from  which  was  made  3.17  gallons  sirup,  weigh¬ 
ing  11J  lbs.  per  gallon.  Calculating  from  this  data,  an  acre  of  the  early 
amber  would  yield  624.2  gallons  of  juice,  or  86.1  gallons  of  sirup. 

5.  Orange. — September  23.  Juice  neutralized  with  milk  of  lime  ; 
afterwards  tannin  and  gelatine  added  ;  evaporated  to  a  syrup  of  12  lbs.  to 
the  gallon  ;  syrup  dark.  The  sugar  commenced  crystallizing  in  a  tew  days. 
Three  weeks  afterwards  the  sugar  was  sepaiated  from  the  sirup  by  a  cen¬ 
trifugal  separator.  Sugar,  brown. 

In  this  experiment.  360  lbs.  of  topped  and  stripped  stalks  were  used  ; 
producing  155  lbs.  of  juice  (43  per  cent.) ;  28  lbs.  sirup  (7.78  per  cent,  of 
the  stalks  and  18.04  Per  cent,  of  the  juice);  13^  lbs.  sugar  (3.8  per  cent, 
of  stalks,  8.87  per  cent,  of  juice,  49.1  per  cent,  sirup.) 

One  row,  .0398  acres,  yielded  30  lbs.  juice.  Calculating  the  yield  of 
an  acre  from  these  data,  we  have  754  gallons  juice,  1 20.6  gallons,  or 
1,447.2  lbs.  sirup,  and  710.67  lbs.  sugar. 

6.  Orange. — Sept.  24.  Juice  neutralized  with  lime,  and  a  few  drops 
of  tannin  added  to  every  1  o  gallons  juice  ;*  then  £  oz.  gelatin,  and  after¬ 
wards  a  little  sulphate  of  alumina.  Juice  evaporated  to  a  sirup  of  1 1  lbs. 
to  the  gallon  ;  color,  very  light.  Sugar  began  crystallizing  after  standing 
two  days. 

7.  Orange — Sept.  27.  Juice  neutralized  with  lime,  and  concentrat¬ 
ed  to  a  sirup  of  11  to  12  lbs.  per  gallon.  Sugar  readily  crystallized. 

8.  Ora?ige. — Sept.  27.  Juice  neutralized  with  milk  of  lime  ;  sul¬ 
phurous  acid  was  added  to  combine  with  any  lime  remainiug  uncombined 
in  the  juice.  The  sugar  began  crystallizing  as  the  sirup  was  cold. 

9.  Orange. — Oct.  1.  Juice  defecated  with  lime  and  sulphate  of 
alumina.  Sugar  began  crystallizing  after  three  days.  In  this  experiment 
stripped  and  topped  stalks  were  used  ;  yielding  54.2  per  cent,  of  juice; 
specific  gravity,  1.076. 

10.  Orange. — Oct.  1.  Juice  evaporated  without  defecation.  The 


3 


i8 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


sirup,  after  standing  about  five  weeks,  had  but  few  crystals  of  sugar.  In 
a  subsequent  analysis  of  this  sirup  (see  analysis  of  sirup,  No.  4),  there 
was  found  to  be  38.9  per  cent,  of  cane  sugar,  and  26.91  percent,  of  grape 
sugar. 

11.  Orange. — Juice  not  defecated  ;  evaporated  to  a  sirup  of  12  lbs. 
to  the  gallon.  The  sugar  has  not  crystallized. 

12.  Amber. — Juice  defecated  with  lime  and  sulphate  of  alumina. 
The  juice  was  quite  acid  as  it  came  from  the  mill.  Sirup  black.  Sugar 
crystallized. 

Finding  that  some  of  the  sirup  whose  juice  had  not  been  defecated, 
did  not  crystallize,  it  was  thought  that,  perhaps,  a  farther  concentration 
would  cause  the  sugar  to  crystallize.  For  this  purpose  the  sirup  produced 
in  experiment  No.  3  was  selected.  In  the  early  part  of  November  it  was 
further  concentrated  in  the  steam  evaporator,  but  this  had  no  effect  upon 
the  crystallization  of  the  sugar. 

Finding  that  the  concentration  of  the  sirup  did  not  cause  the  sugar 
to  crystallize,  an  analysis  of  several  of  the  sirups  was  undertaken,  in  or¬ 
der  to  investigate  this  subject  more  thoroughly.  The  following  sirups 
were  selected  to  be  analyzed  : 

No.  1.  Early  Amber. — Sirup  taken  from  that  made  in  experiment 
No.  3. 

No  2.  Sirup  of  No.  1  subjected  to  further  concentration. 

No.  3.  Orange. — Sirup  of  experiment  No.  9,  with  the  crystallized 

sugar  taken  out  by  the  centrifugal  separator. 

No.  4.  Orange. —  Obtained  from  the  sirup  of  experiment  No.  10. — 

The  following  were  the  results  obtained  : 


COMPOSITION  OF  SORGHUM  SIRUPS. 


Number. 

Cane  Sugar. 

Grape  Sugar 

Gum. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Total. 

No.  i  . 

47.32. 

14.70 

6.S0 

. 

29.4 

1.97 

IOO.I 

No.  2. . . 

45.62 

20  00 

10.51 

20.39 

3-78 

100.3 

No.  3  . 

35-63 

26.S2 

6-75 

2S.67 

1.40 

99.27 

No.  4 . 

38-9 

26.91 

7. So 

24.04 

I-75 

96.40 

The  cause  of  the  large  per  cent,  of  ash  shown  by  No.  2  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  lime  added  to  neutralize  the  sirup  before  the  second  con¬ 
centration. 

From  the  proximate  analysis  of  the  cane,  it  appears  that  one  acre  of 
sorghum  produces  2,559  pounds  of  cane  sugar.  Of  this  amount  we  ob¬ 
tained  710  pounds  in  the  form  of  good  brown  sugar,  and  265  pounds  were 
left  in  the  737  pounds  of  molasses  drained  from  the  sugar.  Hence,  sixty- 
two  per  cent,  of  .the  total  amount  of  sugar  was  lost  or  changed  during  the 
process  of  manufacture.  This  shows  that  the  method  of  manufacture  in 
general  use  is  very  imperfect. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  SUGAR  MAKING  IN  1 88 1. 

Last  year  a  large  number  of  experiments  were  made  in  order  to  de¬ 
termine  the  means  by  which  the  cane  sugar  could  be  made  to  crystalize. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


*9 


This  object  was  much  more  readily  attained  than  we  at  first  expected,  and 
consequently  we  selected  from  those  experiments  the  one  which  was  most 
simple  and  most  likely  to  be  practicable  when  operating  on  a  large  scale. 
In  perfecting  this  our  attention  was  given  to  the  production  of  sugar  and 
sirup  which  should  be  free  from  the  objectionable  sorghum  taste  and  odor. 
In  this  we  succeeded  perfectly.  Sorghum  juice  in  its  normal  condition  is 
acid.  The  conversion. of  cane  sugar  into  grape  sugar  by  boiling  a  solution 
of  the  same  with  a  strong  acid,  as  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric,  has  long  been 
known  to  chemists.  All  other  acids,  even  the  weak  organic  acids  contain¬ 
ed  in  sorghum  juice,  act  in  a  similar  manner.  Hence  it  will  readily  ap¬ 
pear,  why  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  making  sorghum  sirup,  so  little  of 
the  cane  sugar  originally  contained  in  the  juice  can  be  made  to  crystallize. 
A  great  deal  of  the  cane  sugar  is  converted  into  grape  sugar  during  the 
processes  of  defecation  and  evaporation,  and  what  remains  unchanged  is 
prevented  from  granulating  by  the  undue  proportion  of  grape  sugar  pro¬ 
duced.  To  avoid  this  loss  of  cane  sugar  we  neutralize  the  juice  when  cold 
with  calcium  carbonate  or  milk  of  lime  or  both.  This  part  of  the  pro¬ 
cess  requires  skill  and  care,  as  the  subsequent  defecation  of  the  juice  de¬ 
pends  upon  it.  After  thus  neutralizing  the  juice  it  is  heated  to  boiling 
and  thoroughly  defecated.  It  is  then  passed  through  bone-back  filters 
and  finally  evaporated  to  crystallization.  The  sugar  and  molasses  ob¬ 
tained  by  this  process  are  unobjectionable  in  regard  to  color  and  taste. 

Exp.  i — August  22,  1881.  The  cane  selected  for  this  experiment 
was  grown  on  land  which  had  previously  been  used  as  a  barn-yard,  the 
same  as  in  analyses,  Nos.  8  and  14.  The  seed  was  nearly  ripe  and  the 
cane  very  thrifty. 


Wt.  of  cane  crushed .  156.00  lbs. 

Wt.  of  juice  obtained .  687.50  lbs. 

Per  cent  of  juice .  43-4° 


The  juice  was  carefully  neutralized  with  milk  of  lime,  and  brought  to 
the  boiling  point  in  the  defecating  pan.  A  very  heavy  green  scum  rose, 
and  this  being  removed  the  juice  was  seen  to  be  full  of  a  green  light  flock- 
ulent  precipitate  which  did  not  subsequently  rise  to  the  top,  in  any  consid¬ 
erable  quantity.  The  juice  was  now  drawn  off  into  tubs  where  it  w’as  al¬ 
lowed  to  repose  twelve  hours.  At  the  end  of  this  time  only  about  one- 
half  of  the  juice  could  be  drawn  off  clear,  the  precipitate  being  still  sus¬ 
pended  in  the  remainder.  It  was  found  impossible  to  filter  this  portion 
and  it  was  therefore  thrown  away.  The  clear  juice  after  being  passed 
through  bone-black  was  evaporated  in  a  copper  finishing  pan  to  the  crys¬ 
tallizing  point.  The  melada  had  a  very  unpleasant  saltish  taste  owing  to 
the  presence  of  salts  of  ammonia.  The  sugar  crystallized  very  readily 
and  although  it  looked  well  it  still  •  retained  somewhat  of  this  saltish 
taste  after  being  separated  from  the  molasses.  Unquestionably  this  ex¬ 
cessive  amount  of  albuminoids — the  green  scum  and  suspended  precipi¬ 
tate — was  taken  up  by  the  plant  from  the  nitrogenous  elements  of  the 
manure,  and  the  saltish  taste  was  due  to  ammonium  salts  which  came  from 
the  same  source. 

Manure  therefore  not  only  has  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  sugar  in  cane,  but  it  also  prevents  the  thorough  defecation  of  the 
juice  which  is  necessary  to  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Experiment  2 — Aug.  25.  Cane  same  as  that  of  which  analyses  Nos. 
15  and  16  were  made.  Size  of  field  3-16  of  an  acre. 


20 


ILLINOIS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVERSITY. 


CALCULATIONS  FOR  ONE  ACRE. 

Pounds. 

Stripped  cane  with  tops .  1 85 35-3 

Stripped  cane  without  tops .  15765.9 

Weight  of  juice  obtained .  6545.6 

Per  cent,  of  juice  of  stripped  and  topped  cane.  .  .  41.52 

Weight  of  melada  from  juice .  1298.7 

“  “  “  bagasse .  253-9 

Total  weight  of  melada. . . .  1552.6 

Weight  of  sugar  from  juice. .  ' .  504  0 

“  “  “  bagasse .  104. 7 

Total  weight  of  sugar .  608.7 

Weight  of  molasses  from  juice .  794-7 

“  “  “  bagasse .  *49-2 

Total  weight  of  molasses .  943-9 

Calculations  for  one  ton  of  topped  and  stripped  cane  : 

Weight  of  juice . 830.4 

“  sugar .  77.2 

molasses .  119. 7 

To  obtain  the  sugar  from  the  bagasse  it  was  packed  in  large  barrels 
as  it  left  the  mill  and  was  exhausted  with  water.  The  percolate  thus  ob¬ 
tained  was  treated  like  juice. 

Experiment  No.  3 — Sept.  17.  Early  amber.  Obtained  from  Uni¬ 
versity  farm.  Volunteer  growth  among  the  corn.  Seed  ripe.  Cane 
mostly  blown  down. 

Pounds. 

Weight  of  stripped  and  topped  cane . 1440 

Weight  of  juice .  637 

Percent,  of  juice .  44.2 

Weight  of  melada  obtained .  145.8 

Experiment  No.  4.  Early  amber,  grown  upon  University  farm  : 

Pounds. 

Weight  of  stripped  and  topped  cane  . .- .  166 1.0 

“  “  juice  obtained .  603.5 

Percent,  of  juice .  3633 

Weight  of  melada  from  juice .  95.5 

“  “  “  bagasse .  13.5 

Sugar  from  juice .  41.5 

“  “  bagasse .  6.0 

Molasses  from  juice. . . .  54.0 

“  “  bagasse .  7.5 

In  the  last  two  experiments  the  cane  was  poorly  developed,  and  full 
of  suckers,  and  consequently  poorly  adapted  for  the  production  of  sugar. 

GLUCOSE  FROM  SORGHUM  SEED. 

Our  experiments  have  shown,  that  as  good  glucose  can  be  made  from 
the  seed  of  sorghum  as  from  any  other  starchy  substance.  The  yield  of 
glucose  or  grape  sugar  is  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  weight  of  seed  em¬ 
ployed.  The  tannin  does  not  interfere,  as  it  is  converted  into  glucose  by 
the  same  means  which  are  used  to  convert  the  starch,  namely  boiling  with 
dilute  acids. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  SORGHUM. 


2  I 


RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENSES  OF  ONE  ACRE  OF  SORGHUM. 

On  the  basis  of  the  results  actually  obtained  as  described  in  the  fore¬ 
going  pages,  we  have  calculated  the  receipts,  and  from  the  best  data  at 
hand  the  expenses,  for  one  acre  of  sorghum. 

BALANCE  SHEET. 


RECEIPTS  FROM  SUGAR  AND  MOLASSES. 


600  lbs.  sugar  @  7  cts.  .  .  . 

.  $42.00 

85  gallons  molasses . 

.  34-oo 

EXPENSES. 

Cultivating  one  acre . 

.  $10.00 

Stripping  and  cutting . 

.  2.50 

Hauling . 

.  6.00 

Four  days  labor  . 

.  6.00 

Fuel  . 

.  1. 00 

Barrels . 

.  4.00 

Freight  and  dravage . 

.  8.00 

$76.00 


$37-5° 


Net  profit  on  sugar  and  molasses 


$38.50  $38.50 


RECEIPTS  FROM  GLUCOSE. 

1250  lbs.  glucose  @  2  cts .  $25.00 


EXPENSES. 


Gathering  seed . 

Fuel . 

.  i-5° 

Labor . . 

Barrels . 

$9.50 

Net  profit  on  glucose . 

.  $15.50 

$15.50  • 


Total  net  profit  on  one  acre  of  sorghum 


$54.00 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS. 


1.  Seed  should  be  planted  as  early  as  possible. 

2.  The  proper  time  to  begin  cutting  the  cane  for  making  sugar  is 
when  the  seed  is  in  the  hardening  dough. 

3.  The  cane  should  be  worked  up  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting. 
Cane  which  is  cut  in  the  afternoon  or  evening  may  safely  be  worked  up 
the  following  morning. 

4.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  can  be  conducted  properly  only  with 
improved  apparatus  and  on  a  scale  which  would  justify  the  erection  of 
steam  sugar  works,  with  vacuum  pans,  steam  defecators  and  evaporators, 
and  the  employment  of  a  competent  chemist  to  superintend  the  business. 
The  same  is  true  for  the  manufacture  of  glucose  from  the  seed.  Our  ex¬ 
periments  were  made  with  the  ordinary  apparatus  used  in  manufacturing 
sorghum  sirup,  and  any  person,  who  desired  to  work  on  a  small  scale, 
could  use  the  methods  with  good  results,  provided  he  had  acquired  the 
necessary  skill  in  neutralizing  and  defecating  the  juice  and  in  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  bone  black  filters.  The  manufacture  of  glucose  on  a  small  scale 
is  entirely  out  of  the  question.  Five  hundred  to  a  thousand  acres  of  sor¬ 
ghum  would  be  sufficient  to  justify  the  erection  of  steam  sugar  works  and 
this  amount  could  easily  be  raised  in  almost  any  community  within  a 
radius  of  one  or  two  miles  from  the  works. 


_ 


THE 

SUGAR  CANE. 


REGISTERED  FOR  TRANSMISSION  ABROAD. 

No.  6.  JANUARY  1,  1870.  Vol.  II. 

83J”  The  writers  alone  are  responsible  for  their  statements. 

For  Table  of  Contents,  see  opposite  the  last  page  of  each  Number. 

TO  OUR  SUBSCRIBERS. 

(S^'IYE  MONTHS  have  elapsed  since  the  publication  of  the  first 
Go  Number  of  11  The  Sugar  Cane”  and  its  success  is  now  fully 
assured  ;  the  number  of  subscribers  already  obtained  has  far 
exceeded  our  expectations,  and  new  names  are  received  daily. 
To  all  who  have  aided  us  in  our  undertaking,  whether  subscribers 
or  contributors,  we  tender  our  thanks,  as  well  as  to  the  conductors 
of  numerous  periodicals  by  whom  our  Magazine  has  been  favour¬ 
ably  noticed.  Though  the  financial  condition  of  “  The  Sugar 
Cane  ”  is  thus  satisfactory,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  wc 
have  not  been  favoured  with  a  larger  number  of  communications 
from  those  engaged  in  cane  sugar  production  in  various  places. 
"Whilst  articles  of  a  technological  character  come  to  hand  almost  in 
profusion,  wc  have  been  somewhat  disappointed  in  having  received 
so  few  of  a  practical  character  relating  especially  to  cane  cultiva¬ 
tion.  "We  appeal  to  our  friends  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to  aid  us 
by  forwarding  information  of  this  nature  for  discussion  in  our 
pages,  and  we  may  remind  them  that  nothing  is  so  valuable  as  the 
carefully  verified  results  of  individual  experience.  On  the  part  of 
the  proprietors  of  this  Magazine,  nothing  will  be  wanting  to  make 
it  increasingly  valuable  to  all  classes  of  its  readers,  and  especially  to 
those  who  arc  directly  interested  in  the  production  of  cane  sugar. 

As  it  is  generally  much  more  convenient  to  commence  a  new 
volume  of  a  periodical  with  the  first  month  of  each  year,  wc  have 
decided  that  the  present  Number  shall  be  the  first  of  Volume 
Second,  and,  accordingly,  have  supplied  a  title-page  and  completo 
index  for  the  First  Volume. 


A 


2 


THE  STJGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


ON  THE  CHEMISTRY  OE  SUGAR  REFINING. 

Er  Du.  Wallace,  F.R.S.E.,  Glasgow. 

A  Discourse  delivered  before  the  Fellows  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
February  1,  1869,  and  Keyised  by  the  Author  for  Publication  in 

“  The  Sugar  Cane." 

{Continued  from  page  267.) 


Filtration  through  Charcoal. 

After  this  rather  lengthy  digression,  wc  return  to  the  process 
of  sugar  refining  as  it  actually  exists.  After  being  made  clear  and 
transparent  by  passing  through  the  hag  filters,  the  liquor  is  run 
into  iron  tanks  or  cisterns  filled  with  animal  charcoal,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  settle  for  several  hours,  after  which  it  is  slowly  drawn 
off  below,  while  more  of  the  dark  coloured  liquor  is  run  on  to  the 
top,  so  as  to  keep  the  cistern  full.  As  this  goes  on,  the  liquor, 
which  comes  away  at  first  perfectly  colourless,  becomes  after  a 
time  distinctly  yellow,  and  the  sugar  solution  is  replaced  by  the 
syrup  from  a  previous  refine ;  and  lastly,  this  is  washed  out  with 
hot  water  until  no  appreciable  trace  of  sugar  can  be  found  in  the 
washings ;  then  the  charcoal  is  further  washed  with  a  copious 
volume  of  boiling  water,  next  with  some  cold  water,  and  afterwards 
drained,  removed  from  the  cisterns,  and  taken  to  the  kilns  to  be 
reburned.  Such,  in  few  words,  is  the  decolorizing  process,  which, 
however,  I  must  now  describe  in  greater  detail. 

The  cisterns  arc  of  various  forms  and  sizes ;  some  are  square  and 
shallow,  some  of  great  depth,  40  to  60  feet,  and  so  on ;  but  the 
kind  universally  employed  in  the  Clyde  refineries  arc  circular,  and 
of  no  great  depth,  being  generally  about  9  feet  diameter  and  16  feet 
deep,  and  capable  of  containing  from  20  to  25  tons  of  charcoal, 
according  to  its  density.  The  cisterns  arc  covered  on  the  top,  and 
are  constructed  to  bear  the  pressure  of  a  considerable  column  of 
water,  or  liquor,  which  may  be  applied  when  necessary,  to  cause  a 
more  rapid  nitration.  The  quantity  of  charcoal  to  a  given  weight 
of  sugar  varies  exceedingly.  "Where  water  is  scarce  or  dear,  coals 


Jan.  1,  1870 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


3 


clear,  and,  above  all,  where  the  charcoal  has  to  be  sent  out  of  town 
to  be  reburnetl,  the  quantity  of  char  is  necessarily  reduced  as  far 
as  possible,  but  in  other  circumstances  the  proportion  should  not  be 
less  than  25  cwt.  of  char  to  a  ton  of  sugar.  The  size  or  “  grist” 
of  the  charcoal  must  depend  to  some  extent  on  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  cisterns ;  but  in  all  cases  where  it  is  possible  to  use  it,  a 
small  size,  such  as  would  pass  through  a  sieve  of  20  meshes  to  the 
inch,  but  would  be  retained  by  one  of  30  meshes,  should  be  chosen. 
Theoretically,  the  smaller  the  grist  the  better,  the  finest  dust  being 
the  best  of  all ;  but  practically,  the  char  must  have  a  sufficient  size 
to  permit  the  liquor  to  pass  through  it  in  a  reasonable  time.  Then 
as  to  the  quality  of  the  charcoal,  it  would  occupy  an  entire  lecture 
to  go  fully  into  that  department.  The  whole  subject  is  fully  dis¬ 
cussed  in  a  lecture  which  I  delivered  last  year  in  Glasgow,  and 
which  will  be  found  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  ‘Philosophical  Society 
of  Glasgow  (Yol.  YI.  part  4),  also  in  abstract  in  the  Chemical  News. 
On  the  present  occasion  I  can  only  refer  to  some  points  connected 
with  this  most  important  subject.  Animal  charcoal,  when  new, 
consists  of  carbon,  calcic  phosphate  and  carbonate,  and  minute 
quantities  of  some  other  substances;  the  composition  is  a  little 
variable,  but  the  following  results  of  analysis  of  three  varieties  will 
convey  a  good  idea  of  its  usual  constituents,  A  being  made  from 
ordinary  bones,  collected  in  this  country ;  P,  from  South  American 
shank  bones,  and  C,  from  what  are  called  camp  bones,  whicji  arc 
frequently  buried  for  some  years  before  they  are  collected  : — 


Dry. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

Carbon,  nitrogenous  . . . 

.  9-71 

7-64 

..  10-37 

Calcic  phosphate,  &c.  . 

.  80-48 

. .  84-05 

. .  78-70 

Calcic  carbonate . 

.  8-82 

7-61 

. .  8  05 

Calcic  sulphate . 

•34 

•20 

•53 

Alkaline  salts . 

•30 

. .  *25 

•58 

Ferric  oxide  . 

•12 

•15 

•21 

Silicious  matters  . 

•23 

..  -io 

156 

100-00 

100-00 

100  00 

Cubic  feet  per  ton  (dr}’) 

51 

49 

47 

4 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 

The  above  analyses  represent  the  charcoal  as  being  dry,  in  order 
that  they  may  he  compared  with  one  another  ;  hut  practically  the 
article  is  always  sold  with  about  1 0  per  cent,  of  water. 

The  so-called  carbon  in  animal  charcoal  is  net  by  any  means 
pure,  for  it  contains  a  very  notable  amount  of  nitrogen,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  hydrogen,  the  quantities  of  both  of  these  elements 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  charcoal  has  been 
exposed  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  Generally  the  quantity  of 
nitrogen  is  about  one-tenth  part  of  the  total  carbonaceous  matter, 
but  sometimes  I  have  found  it  considerably  more.  The  proportion 
of  hydrogen  in  well-burnt  animal  charcoal  is  exceedingly  minute, 
being  in  one  particular  case  (new)  only  '034  per  cent.  Old  char¬ 
coal  which  has  been  frequently  used  in  refining,  and  rebumed, 
contains  less  nitrogen,  and  the  proportion  appears  continually  to 
decrease.  I  have  found  it  as  low  as  '3  per  cent.,  and  as  the  char¬ 
coal  which  gave  this  amount  was  not  excessively  old,  I  have  no 
doubt  it  may  be  reduced  even  further.  I  believe  that  the  nitrogen 
is  an  important  and  essential  constituent  of  animal  charcoal,  and  it 
is  certain  that  no  description  of  charcoal  which  does  not  contain  an 
appreciable  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  a  good  decolorizing  agent. 
"Wood  charcoal,  for  instance,  although  eminently  porous,  and  an 
excellent  absorbent  of  gases,  is  a  very  poor  decolorizing  agent,  and 
is  practically  useless.  Red-hot  animal  charcoal  quenched  with 
water  evolves  ammonia,  and  I  believe  that  the  practice  of  cooling 
charcoal  in  this  way  pursued  by  some  refiners  is  a  highly  injurious 
one. 

New  charcoal  always  contains  traces  of  ammonia,  but  the  amount 
is  extremely  minute,  being  in  a  particular  case  only  'Oil  per  cent. 
The  effect  of  this  minute  quantity,  and  of  traces  of  sulphide  o£ 
ammonium,  is  readily  seen  in  the  sugar  run  over  new  charcoal, 
which  should  never  be  used  until  after  it  has  been  well  washed 
and  reburned.  New  charcoal  also  contains  invariably  a  minute 
quantity  of  sulphide  of  calcium,  and  gives  off  the  odour  of  hydric 
sulphide  when  treated  with  an  acid,  and  even  when  moistened 
with  water.  In  a  particular  case  a  sample  of  new  charcoal  gave 
*08  per  cent,  of  hydric  sulphide  when  treated  with  an  acid.  Char- 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


5 


coal,  both  new  and  old,  retains  appreciable  quantities  of  gases 
which  escape  when  cisterns  containing  it  are  filled  with  liquor,  and 
these  gases  frequently  explode  when  a  light  is  brought  near  the 
top  of  the  cistern. 

In  a  sugar-house  the  charcoal  is  usually  burned  every  fourth  or 
fifth  day,  and  is  thus  reburned  from  seventy  to  ninety  times  in  a 
year.  Old  charcoal  has  not  the  same  chemical  composition  as  new. 
The  carbon  almost  invariably  increases,  and  if  the  kilns  are  per¬ 
fectly  tight,  ought  to  increase,  so  that  the  pores  are  gradually  filled 
up  with  the  deposit  of  carbon,  arising  from  the  carbonizing  of  the 
vegetable  matter  extracted  from  the  raw  sugar  which  it  has  been 
employed  to  purify.  This  deposit  of  carbon  is  a  very  great  evil  in 
sugar  refining,  and  should  be  prevented,  as  far  as  possible,  by 
washing  the  charcoal  with  boiling  water  before  reburning.  In 
some  refineries  the  proportion  of  carbon  does  not  increase,  and  in 
others  it  speedily  diminishes,  so  that  it  sometimes  docs  not  exceed 
2  or  3  per  cent.  When  this  decrease  takes  place,  it  arises  either 
from  the  admission  of  air  to  the  charcoal  while  hot,  or  from  exces¬ 
sive  burning,  which  causes  a  reaction  to  take  place  between  the 
carbon  and  the  elements  of  water,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
carbonic  gas  and  marsh  gas.  But  if  the  kilns  and  cooling  boxes 
are  tight,  and  the  heat  not  excessive,  the  carbon  will  inevitably 
increase  rapidly,  unless  we  take  the  precaution  of  washing  out  of 
the  charcoal,  before  rebuming,  nearly  all  the  organic  matters 
absorbed  from  the  sugar  liquor. 

Extensive  washing  has  also  a  most  beneficial  influence  in  re¬ 
moving  mineral  salts  absorbed  from  the  raw  sugar.  In  all  raw 
sugars  a  certain  proportion  of  mineral  salts  is  found,  varying  in 
ordinary  cane  sugars  from  £  to  1  per  cent.,  in  syrup  sugars  from  1 
to  2  per  cent.,  and  in  beet  sugars,  such  as  arc  used  by  the  British 
refiners,  from  1  to  7  per  cent.  The  highly  soluble  salts,  such  as 
those  of  potassium,  have  no  effect  upon  the  charcoal,  and  only 
annoy  the  refiner  by  accumulating  in  the  syrups;  but  calcic 
sulphate,  a  salt  only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  is  readily  absorbed 
by  charcoal,  and  can  only  be  removed  by  extensive  washing.  It  is 
rather  a  singular  fact,  that  so  long  as  the  sugar  liquor  is  strong, 


6 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


the  sulphate  is  absorbed  and  retained  ;  but  whenever  the  washing 
begins,  it  comes  away  in  the  washings,  so  that  it  is  no  uncommon 
tiling,  in  boiling  down  weak  char  washings,  to  obtain  a  plentiful 
crop,  not  of  sugar,  but  of  gypsum.  "When  the  water  is  hard,  and 
contains  much  calcic  sulphate,  the  proper  washing  of  charcoal 
becomes  almost,  if  not  quite,  an  impossibility ;  and  I  have  myself 
examined  charcoal  which  contained  2 £  per  cent,  of  that  compound. 
In  beet  factories  where  lime  is  freely  used  in  clarifying  the  juice, 
the  pores  of  the  charcoal  soon  become  choked  with  calcic  carbonate, 
rendering  it  useless,  unless  the  compound  is  removed  by  treatment 
with  an  acid. 

But  charcoal  becomes  old  and  useless  from  another  cause ;  it 
gradually  shrinks  in  volume,  and  the  pores  must  become  either 
lessened,  or  altogether  obliterated.  The  space  occupied  by  a  ton  of 
new  charcoal,  when  dry,  is  usually  about  50  cubic  feet ;  but  after 
being  a  few  months  in  use  it  is  reduced  to  40,  and  so  it  goes  on 
shrinking,  until  it  reaches  28  cubic  feet,  which  is  the  densest 
charcoal  out  of  about  400  samples  that  I  have  tested.  How,  this 
does  not  arise  from  an  actual  increase  in  the  density  of  the  charcoal. 
I  have  tried  the  specific  gravity  of  old  and  new  charcoal,  and  have 
found  the  difference  very  slight  indeed.  Thus,  new  charcoal, 
occupying  50-6  cubic  feet  per  ton,  had  a  gravity  of  2-822,  while 
the  old,  occupying  only  35  cubic  feet,  had  a  gravity  of  2-857. 
The  fact  is,  that  the  heat  to  which  the  char  is  subjected  produces  a 
semi-fusion  of  the  calcic  phosphate,  which  is  its  most  abundant 
constituent,  and  causes  a  shrinking  in  the  bulk  of  the  particles. 
The  following  simple  experiment  serves  to  illustrate  this  point : — 
A  quantity  of  new  charcoal,  measuring  48  cubic  feet  per  ton,  was 
exposed,  in  a  covered  crucible,  to  a  rather  strong  heat  for  an  hour, 
after  which  it  had  contracted  to  43-2  cubic  feet,  after  two  hours 
more  to  40‘8  cubic  feet,  after  other  four  hours  it  measured  38,  and 
with  still  four  hours  longer  of  a  strong  heat,  35-5  cubic  feet — thus 
losing  in  eleven  hours  as  much  of  its  porousness  as  it  would  by 
being  worked  in  a  sugar-house  for  two  years.  It  is  well  known  to 
chemists  that  calcic  phosphate  is  fusible  at  a  high  heat,  but  the 
temperature  of  a  charcoal  kiln  is  sufficient  to  produce  only  aggluti- 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  STJGAH  CANE. 


7 


nation.  New  charcoal  burnt  white  has  the  appearance  of  bits  of 
chalk,  but  old  charcoal  has  the  texture  of  porcelain  or  flint.  The 
quantity  of  liquid  capable  of  being  retained  by  the  two  kinds  is 
also  remarkable.  If  a  funnel  is  filled  with  good  new  charcoal, 
perfectly  diy,  and  water  poured  on  it  as  long  as  it  is  retained,  it 
will  be  found  to  hold  in  its  pores  from  80  to  100  per  cent.,  while 
old  charcoal  retains  from  30  to  45  per  cent,  according  to  its 
quality.  Again,  dry  new  charcoal  docs  not  become  perceptibly 
wet,  unless  at  least  20  per  cent  of  water  is  added  to  it,  while  old 
charcoal  is  made  wet  with  5  per  cent. 

All  these  considerations  point  to  the  necessity  of  renewing  the 
charcoal  very  frequently,  in  order  that  it  may  act  efficiently.  It  is 
not  enough  merely  to  replace  the  dust  that  is  sifted  out  occasion¬ 
ally,  and  to  make  up  by  the  addition  of  new  char  for  the  shrinkage 
in  volume  that  is  constantly  taking  place.  If  proper  work  is  to  be 
done,  and  the  charcoal  maintained  in  a  state  of  real  efficiency,  a 
portion  of  the  entire  char  (not  the  dust  only)  should  be  set  aside 
from  time  to  time,  and  replaced  by  new  material  at  the  rate  of  50 
per  cent,  per  annum,  and  the  addition  should  be  made  constantly — 
one,  two,  or  three  bags  of  new  charcoal  in  every  cistern,  according 
to  its  capacity. 

As  regards  the  proper  quantity  of  charcoal  to  use,  per  ton  of 
sugar,  that  depends  a  good  deal  upon  the  kind  of  sugar  used,  and 
upon  the  quality  of  the  charcoal ;  but  the  smaller  the  quantity  of 
charcoal  the  better,  for  the  use  of  a  large  quantity  entails  a  loss  of 
sugar  and  the  production  of  an  extra  proportion  of  weak  and 
impure  washings.  For  a  ton  of  sugar  25  cwt.  of  charcoal  is  amply 
sufficient  if  the  quality  is  good,  and  if  fine  sugars  are  used  an  equal 
weight  is  enough.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  large  quantity 
of  bad  or  exhausted  charcoal  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  a 
moderate  amount  of  good  charcoal.  Not  only  docs  it  occupy  more 
space,  and  so  limit  the  production  of  refined  sugar,  but  ft  does  not, 
in  any  quantity,  do  the  work  so  well,  besides  producing  an  over¬ 
whelming  amount  of  “  sweet  water,”  or  charcoal  washings.  I 
have  found  that  it  is  impossible,  on  a  practical  scale,  to  wash  out 
all  the  sugar  from  charcoal,  so  as  to  make  the  washings  worth 


8 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


boiling  down,  and  that  for  every  100  parts  of  charcoal  there  is  a 
loss  of  ‘75  of  sugar.  If,  therefore,  an  equal  weight  of  charcoal  is 
used,  the  loss  of  sugar  will  be  *75  per  cent.,  while  if  two  tons  of 
charcoal  are  used  for  each  ton  of  sugar,  the  loss  will  be  U  per 
cent,  from  this  source  alone. 

I  have  selected  a  few  analyses  of  specimens  of  old  or  used  char¬ 
coal,  which  will  convey  an  idea  of  the  variety  to  be  found  in 
different  sugar-houses  throughout  the  country. 


D. 

E. 

F. 

Gr. 

H. 

I. 

K. 

L. 

M. 

Carbon,  nitrogenous 

9-74 

10-60 

12-86 

19-64 

7-42 

10-64 

5-82 

17-28 

2-56 

Calcic  phosphate  . . 

82-80 

83-20 

81-80 

73-20 

87-08 

80-56 

77-26 

79-56 

90-73 

Calcic  carbonate  . . 

5-92 

4-15 

2-92 

3-18 

1-92 

4-52 

14-66 

1-05 

3-50 

Calcic  sulphate  .... 

•67 

•64 

•42 

1-12 

•95 

2-24 

1-03 

•59 

1-10 

Ferric  oxide  . 

•33 

•55 

•67 

•66 

•85 

•72 

•21 

•69 

1-17 

Silicious  matters  . . 

•54 

•86 

1-33 

2-20 

1-78 

1-32 

1-02 

•83 

•94 

Cubic  feet  per  ton . , 

44 

39 

36 

32 

29 

35 

40 

34 

35 

D  is  first-class  charcoal ;  E  is  of  excellent  quality  ;  F  is  of  fair 
average  quality  ;  G  is  pretty  old  and  very  much  glazed ;  H  is 
very  old  and  overburned ;  I  has  been  used  in  a  sugar-house  where 
hard  water  is  employed ;  K  has  been  used  in  a  continental  beet 
factory  ;  L  has  been  soured  in  the  process  of  washing ;  and  M  has 
been  exposed  to  the  air  while  cooling. 

The  power  which  charcoal  is  capable  of  exerting  in  removing 
colouring  matter  from  solutions  is  truly  astonishing.  A  very  good 
lecture-room  experiment  consists  in  pouring  into  a  funnel,  filled 
with  good  animal  charcoal,  an  aqueous  solution  of  cochineal,  when 
it  comes  through  perfectly  colourless,  and  its  presence  in  the  char¬ 
coal  in  an  unaltered  form  may  be  illustrated  by  boiling  the  charcoal 
with  alcohol,  when  it  gives  up  the  colouring  matter  to  that  liquid. 
Port  wine  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and  with  a  like 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


9 


result.  Charcoal  has  also  the  power  of  absorbing  vegetable 
albumin,  gum,  oxide  of  iron,  calcic  carbonate  and  hydrate,  and 
calcic  sulphate.  In  sugar  we  have  vegetable  albumin,  extractive 
matters,  and  invariably  some  salt  of  calcium,  and  all  these,  as  well 
as  the  colouring  matter,  are  removed  by  the  charcoal;  and  not 
only  so,  but  their  removal  is  important  and  essential,  so  that  if  we 
could  practically  bleach  sugar  by  ozone,  chlorine,  sulphurous  gas, 
or  any  other  chemical  agent,  we  should  still  require  to  use  charcoal 
to  purify  the  sugar. 

The  active  ingredient  in  animal  charcoal  is  unquestionably  the 
nitrogenous  carbon,  for  if  the  charcoal  is  burned  perfectly  white, 
not  only  on  the  outside  of  the  grains,  but  to  the  very  centre  of 
each  particle,  it  no  longer  retains  the  slightest  trace  of  decolorizing 
power.  Rut  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  carbon  owes  its  extra¬ 
ordinary  powers  to  its  extreme  porosity,  the  carbon  being  infinitely 
comminuted  and  kept  asunder  by  admixture  with  ten  times  its 
weight  of  calcic  phosphate.  The  dark  brown  solution  of  raw  sugar 
comes  away  at  first  perfectly  colourless  ;  after  a  time  the  pores  of 
the  charcoal  begin  to  get  saturated,  and  the  liquor  gradually 
becomes  yellow,  and  even  brown,  if  the  process  is  continued  long 
enough.  The  sugar  refiner  takes  care  to  economize  his  charcoal  by 
passing  through  it  first  a  fine  quality  of  raw  sugar,  afterwards  an 
inferior  sort,  and  lastly,  syrups  from  the  drainage  of  previous 
refines. 

The  calcic  carbonate  in  charcoal  is  very  useful  in  neutralizing 
the  minute  quantity  of  acid  present  in  almost  all  raw  sugars,  and 
also  the  acids  always  formed  during  the  washing  of  the  charcoal 
by  a  process  of  fermentation  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  prevent. 
Charcoal  deprived  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  its  calcic  carbonate  is  very 
objectionable,  and  is  sure  to  give  rise  to  sour  liquors  and  the  occur¬ 
rence  of  iron  in  the  syrups.  When  the  water  used  for  dissolving 
the  sugar  and  for  washing  the  charcoal  is  very  soft,  the  calcic 
carbonate  gradually  decreases,  until,  in  pretty  old  char,  it  is 
reduced  to  1£  per  cent.,  and  even  in  extreme  cases  disappears 
entirely.  On  the  other  hand,  when  very  hard  water  is  used,  the 
calcic  carbonate  either  decreases  very  slightly,  or  it  increases,  and 


10 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


sometimes  to  an  alarming  extent ;  and  in  beet  factories  on  the 
continent,  where  lime  is  freely  added  to  the  juice,  the  evil  is  a  very 
serious  one.  In  this  case  it  closes  up  the  pores,  and  many  expe¬ 
dients  have  been  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  it.  This 
is  done  cither  by  washing  with  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric 
acid  diluted  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  saturate  the 
char,  or  better,  by  Mr.  Beanes’  process,  which  consists  in  impreg¬ 
nating  the  burnt  charcoal  with  perfectly  dry  hydrochloric  gas  until  it 
is  saturated,  then  exposing  it  to  the  air  until  the  excess  of  the  gas 
escapes,  and  lastly,  washing  with  water  and  burning.  In  beet 
factories,  and,  in  sonic  particular  circumstances,  in  refineries  also, 
when  the  liquors  are  slightly  alkaline,  the  process  is  attended  with 
the  best  results,  but  I  have  always  objected  to  the  use  of  acid  in 
refineries  using  soft  water,  for  there  the  calcic  carbonate,  instead 
of  being  in  excess,  is  barely  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  minute 
quantity  of  acid  in  the  raw  sugar.  That  animal  charcoal  treated 
with  an  acid  gives  a  whiter  liquor  than  it  would  otherwise  do  is 
easily  demonstrated ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  appears  from  my 
own  experiments  and  those  of  others,  that  it  is  impossible  to  get 
rid,  by  mere  washing,  of  every  trace  of  acid  ;  and  the  consequence 
to  be  feared  is,  that  the  sugar  in  the  liquor  will  be,  to  some  extent, 
converted  into  fruit  sugar  during  the  process  of  boiling  down,  that 
the  char  washings  will  be  very  sour,  and  the  syrups  contaminated 
with  iron.  In  other  words,  I  believe  that  in  a  refinery  working 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  less  syrup  is  produced  than  would 
obtain  if  the  charcoal  were  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  while 
in  the  latter  case  the  colour  of  the  sugar  produced  would  be 
superior.  It  may  be  interesting  to  mention  that  while  dry  hydro¬ 
chloric  gas,  passed  over  dry  calcic  carbonate,  does  not  give  rise  to 
any  action  whatever,  the  dry  gas  passed  over  absolutely  dry  char¬ 
coal  containing  calcic  carbonate  determines  the  complete  decompo¬ 
sition  of  the  latter,  especially  if  the  charcoal  is  warm.  Beanes’ 
process,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  may  be  applied  with 
advantage  to  new  charcoal  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  it  at  once 
into  efficient  working  condition.  New  charcoal  contains  traces  of 
ammonia  and  sulphide  of  ammonium,  and  also  some  free  lime, 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


11 


besides  an  excessive  quantity  of  calcic  carbonate  ;  and  although  the 
ammonia  is  removed,  and  the  free  lime  carbonated  by  the  processes 
of  washing  and  rebuming,  to  which  it  ought  always  to  be  subjected 
before  being  employed  in  sugar  refining,  yet  the  excess  of  calcic 
carbonate  makes  the  liquors  very  yellow,  and  it  is  usually  five  or 
six  weeks  before  the  charcoal  is  in  first-rate  condition.  When, 
however,  the  new  charcoal  is  added  in  small  proportion  to  the  old, 
there  is  no  danger  of  any  harm  resulting,  but,  on  the  contrary,  an 
immediate  advantage  is  observed. 

The  oxidizing  power  of  charcoal  is  well  known  to  chemists,  and 
although  this  property  is  useful  in  purifying  water  and  in  de¬ 
odorising,  yet  in  sugar  refineries  it  is  the  cause  of  much  mischief. 
When  the  char  cisterns  of  a  refinery  are  to  be  washed  off,  hot 
water  is  run  on,  while  the  heavier  syrup  descends,  and  is  drawn  off 
below.  But  the  two  liquids  commingle  to  some  extent,  and  a 
weak  solution  of  sugar  is  formed  which  is  exceedingly  liable  to 
fermentation.  The  free  oxygen  in  the  washing  water,  under  the 
influence  of  the  charcoal,  appears  to  act  upon  the  vegetable  albumin 
which  the  charcoal  has  extracted  from  the  sugar,  converting  it 
into  a  ferment  which  quickly  changes  the  sugar  into  lactic  acid, 
and  this  acid  dissolves  from  the  charcoal  lime  and  traces  of  iron. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  char  washings  arc  sour  and  putrid, 
and  highly  charged  with  salts  of  calcium,  besides  which  they 
frequently  smell  perceptibly  of  hydric  sulphide.  The  ordinary 
way  of  getting  rid  of  these  washings  is  to  use  them  for  dissolving 
fresh  sugar,  but  no  greater  mistake  in  sugar  refining  than  this 
could  be  made. 

As  regards  the  temperature  best  adapted  for  the  action  of  char¬ 
coal  on  sugar,  experience  has  shown  that  the  liquor  in  the  blow-up 
pans  should  be  run  off  at  180°  Ealit.,  the  char  cisterns  should  have 
a  temperature  of  about  155°,  and  never  below  150°,  and  the  water 
used  for  washing  should  be  absolutely  boiling.  The  quantity  of 
water  employed  in  the  process  of  refining  is,  say  for  100  tons  of 
sugar,  something  like  this for  dissolving,  50  tons  ;  for  washing 
to  produce  sweet  washings  to  be  afterwards  boiled  down  or  used  for 
dissolving,  40  tons ;  for  washing  the  charcoal  to  purify  it  further, 


12 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


125  tons — in  all,  215  tons,  or  nearly  50,000  gallons.  I  consider 
this  the  minimum  quantity ;  an  additional  amount  of  washing  is 
invariably  attended  with  increased  excellence  in  the  quality  of 
sugar  turned  out. 

Revivifying  of  the  Charcoal. 

The  reburning  of  charcoal,  in  order  to  restore  to  it  the  power  of 
absorbing  colouring  matter  and  other  impurities,  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  process  in  sugar  refining.  The  object  to  be 
attained  is  to  carbonize  the  organic  matter  extracted  from  the  raw 
sugar,  so  far  as  it  has  not  been  removed  by  washing.  The  process 
should  be  economical  as  regards  fuel ;  it  should  allow  of  the  com¬ 
plete  carbonization  of  the  organic  matters  ;  it  should  permit  of  the 
ready  escape  of  the  gases  and  vapours  produced;  and  it  should 
expose  the  charcoal  for  only  the  smallest  possible  length  of  time  to 
the  heat  required  for  carbonization,  so  as  to  avoid  the  contraction 
of  the  pores  of  the  charcoal,  besides  other  evils  that  result  from 
overburning.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  reburners  :  those  in 
which  upright  pipes  are  used,  and  those  which  consist  of  horizontal 
revolving  cylinders. 

The  kiln  in  general  use  consists  of  a  series  of  upright  cast-iron 
pipes,  arranged  in  six  rows  of  about  ten  pipes  each  row,  three  rows 
being  placed  on  each  side  of  the  furnace.  The  flame  of  the 
furnace  plays  directly  upon  the  pipes,  and  the  products  of  combus¬ 
tion  are  conducted  away  from  the  sides  of  the  kiln.  The  wet  char, 
as  it  comes  from  the  cisterns,  is  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  kiln,  and 
sinks  gradually  down  as  the  burnt  char  in  the  pipes  is  allowed  to 
fall  into  the  cooling  boxes  below.  These  consist  of  sheet-iron 
vessels,  the  same  length  as  the  row  of  pipes  to  which  they  are 
attached,  about  six  or  eight  feet  deep,  and  an  inch  or  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  cooled  simply  by  contact  with  the  atmosphere. 
The  cooled  charcoal  is  drawn  from  the  cooling  boxes  every  twenty 
minutes,  in  such  proportion  that  it  is  about  six  or  eight  hours  in 
the  pipes  altogether.  The  time  given  should  depend  upon  the 
heat  of  the  kilns,  and  different  quantities  should  be  drawn  from 
each  row  of  pipes  according  to  the  amount  of  heat  they  receive 


Jan.  1,  1870.' 


THE 


SUGAR-  ‘CANE. 


IQ 

O 


from  the  fire.  Thus,  if  there  arc  three  rows  of  pipes,  the  one 
nearest  the  fire  should  be  emptied  in  about  5  hours,  that  in  the 
middle  in  7£  hours,  and  the  back  row  in  10  hours.  These  kilns, 
although  tolerably  economical  as  regards  fuel,  arc  open  to  many 
obj  ections,  not  the  least  of  which  is  that  the  wet  charcoal  above 
prevents  the  free  escape  of  the  gases  and  vapour  evolved  from  the 
carbonizing  and  drying  charcoal.  Of  the  heat  consumed  in  the 
kiln,  four-fifths  are  absorbed  in  drying,  and  it  is  a  great  mistake  not 
to  dry  the  charcoal,  wholly  or  partially,  before  putting  it 
into  the  kilns.  I  cannot  occupy  more  time  with  further  details  of 
the  various  mechanical  arrangements  which  have  been  adopted  by 
various  sugar  refiners,  nor  with  the  description  of  the  various 
forms  of  revolving  cylinder-kilns,  information  about  which  will  be 
found  in  my  paper  on  charcoal,  previously  referred  to. 

"When  the  charcoal  is  sufficiently  cold,  it  is  again  placed  in  the 
cisterns,  and  the  whole  process  is  repeated. 

Evaporation  of  the  Liquor. 

The  next  process  in  sugar  refining  is  the  boiling  down  of  the 
decolorized  liquor,  so  as  to  recover  the  sugar  in  a  crystalline  form. 
This,  as  is  well  known,  is  effected  by  means  of  a  vacuum  pan,  in 
which  the  vapour  that  is  formed  is  condensed  by  jets  of  water,  and 
the  vacuum  is  maintained  by  means  of  an  air-pump.  A  pan  of 
good  size  is  10  or  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  may  hold  about  20  tons 
of  sugar  and  syrup.  The  boiling  down  occupies  usually  about  two 
or  three  hours ;  the  extent  of  vacuum  averages,  in  a  well-made 
pan,  about  28  inches,  and  the  temperature  is  usually  120°  Falit. 
at  the  beginning  of  the  boiling,  and  about  130°  at  the  end  of  the 
process.  The  improvements  introduced  of  late  years  into  the 
vacuum  pan  consist  in  increasing  the  extent  of  heating  surface,  and 
the  quantity  of  water  injected  into  the  condenser,  and  in  enlarging 
the  neck  of  the  pan  to  1 8  inches,  or  even  more,  so  as  to  permit 
of  the  free  escape  of  the  vapour  into  the  condenser.  The  opera¬ 
tion  commences  by  running  into  the  pan  a  quantity  of  liquor 
sufficient  to  cover  the  first  coil  of  steam  pipe  or  “  worm,”  when 
the  steam  is  turned  on  and  the  boiling  commences.  After  a  time 


14 


THE  STIGAIt  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


more  liquor  is  run  in,  and  so  on,  a  little  at  a  time,  until  the  pan  is 
full,  the  different  tiers  of  worm  being  supplied  with  steam  as  soon 
as  they  arc  covered.  At  the  very  first  the  liquor  is  boiled  strong 
enough  to  form  a  “grain,”  consisting  of  almost  microscopic  crystals 
of  sugar,  and  these  increase  in  size  as  the  boiling  proceeds,  until  at 
the  finish  they  are  as  large  as  may  be  desired.  It  requires  a  con¬ 
siderable  amount  of  training  and  shill  to  boil  sugar  so  that  the 
grain  may  be  gradually  built  up.  What  is  called  false  grain  con¬ 
sists  of  a  mass  of  minute  crystals  collected  into  grains,  and 
although  in  some  cases  this  kind  of  compound  crystal  results  from 
the  carelessness  or  want  of  skill  of  the  boiler ;  in  other  instances  it 
is  made  intentionally,  so  as  to  give  the  resulting  sugar  a  whiter 
appearance,  and  to  enable  it  to  hold  more  syrup. 

When  very  large  and  distinct  crystals  are  desired,  such  as  are 
made  in  Bristol  and  Glasgow,  a  modified  arrangement  is  adopted. 
The  liquor  is  boiled  more  slowly  and  at  a  higher  temperature,  and 
when  the  pan  is  full  the  whole  contents  are  not  drawn  off,  but  only 
a  half ;  and  this  is  repeated  several  times,  the  crystals  becoming 
larger  every  time.  The  large  crystals  are  much  prized  on  account 
of  their  beauty  and  purity,  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being 
troublesome  to  dissolve,  while  the  manufacture  of  them  necessitates 
the  exposure  of  the  syrup  with  which  they  are  mixed  for  a  long 
tipic  to  a  rather  high  temperature  (about  1 60°),  causing  the  con¬ 
version  of  a  considerable  portion  of  sugar  into  the  uncrystallizablc 
form,  and  also  darkening  the  colour  of  the  syrup.  And  here  I 
would  give  a  word  of  advice  to  refiners,  who  all  insist  that  in  order 
to  obtain  large  Crystals  a  high  temperature  must  necessarily  be 
employed.  I  believe  this  to  be  a  mistake.  If  sugar  requires  a 
high  temperature  to  form  large  crystals,  it  must  be  different  from 
all  other  crystalline  bodies  ;  and  besides,  sugar  candy  is  formed  at 
a  low  degree  of  heat,  and  consists  of  larger  and  more  distinct 
crystals  than  ever  were  formed  in  a  vacuum  pan.  Large  crystals 
must  be  formed  slowly,  and  the  degree  of  heat  is,  I  believe,  a  matter 
of  indifference.  Strange  to  say,  I  have  not  succeeded  in  inducing 
any  refiner  to  boil  slowly  and  at  a  low  temperature.  They  all  say 
that  it  cannot  be  done,  and  so  the  matter  rests.  The  mistake  they 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE 


15 


make  is,  tliat  they  regulate  the  rapidity  of  boiling,  not  by  the 
quantity  of  steam  admitted  to  the  worm,  hut  by  the  quantity  of 
injection  water,  so  that,  when  the  latter  is  diminished,  the  extent 
of  vacuum  is  lessened,  and  the  temperature  necessarily  rises,  while 
the  steam,  not  escaping  readily,  retards  the  process  of  evaporation. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  maximum  quantity  of  injection  water 
were  maintained,  and  the  amount  of  steam  diminished,  the  boiling 
would  be  as  slow  as  might  be  desired,  while  the  loss  to  the  refiner 
by  exposing  the  syrup  to  a  high  temperature  would  be  avoided. 

In  boiling  down  the  syrup  obtained  from  the  drainage  of  the 
first  crop  of  crystals,  less  care  is  required,  a  small  grain  being  pre¬ 
ferred  on  account  of  carrying  more  syrup  than  a  larger  grain.  In 
boiling  the  lowest  grade  of  syrup  it  is  customary  to  make  what  is 
technically  called  a  “jelly;”  in  other  words,  the  formation  of 
grain  is  entirely  avoided,  and  the  result  is  left  for  several  days  in 
tanks,  in  order  that  crystals  may  form.  There  arc  generally  three 
qualities  of  crushed  sugar  made,  viz.,  whites,  mediums,  and  yellows, 
the  whites  constituting  nearly  half  of  the  entire  produce ;  but  the 
proportions  of  the  different  kinds  vary  to  some  extent  with  the 
kind  of  raw  sugar  employed.  The  total  produce  of  100  tons  of 
raw  sugar  should  not  be  less  than  95  tons. 

The  separation  of  the  crystals  from  the  syrup  with  which  they 
arc  mixed  is  effected  in  an  apparatus  called  a  centrifugal  machine, 
which  is  simply  a  perforated  basket  revolving  at  great  speed,  so 
that  the  periphery  travels  at  something  like  100  miles  an  hour. 
The  drainage  of  the  crystals  occupies  from  three  to  twenty  minutes, 
according  to  quality ;  and  in  the  ease  of  the  finest  and  whitest 
variety,  a  dash  of  cold  water  is  sometimes  given  in  order  to  wash 
off  the  adhering  syrup. 

And  now  I  must  bring  my  lecture  to  a  close,  and  have  to  thank 
you  for  the  kind  attention  you  have  given  to  the  subject.  I  feel 
that  I  owe  some  apology  to  the  scientific  chemists  present,  who 
must  have  listened,  I  fear,  with  impatience  to  details  in  which 
they  can  have  felt  little  interest.  I  have  endeavoured  to  avoid 
mechanical  details  as  far  as  possible,  while  trying  at  the  same  time 
to  exhibit  a  connected  view  of  the  whole  process  ;  and  to  the  sugar 


16 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jax.  1,  1870. 


refiners  who  have  favoured  me  with  their  presence  I  have  to  say, 
that  it  is  impossible  in  a  single  lecture  to  give  anything  like  a 
complete  description  of  all  the  improvements  that  have  during  the 
last  few  years  been  introduced,  much  less  to  describe  the  results  of 
the  investigations  connected  with  this  branch  of  industry  with 
which  I  have  been  engaged.  The  field  of  inquiry  is  one  that  is 
sure  to  be  fruitful  of  valuable  results  to  any  careful  observer,  and 
I  trust  that  my  few  remarks,  if  not  otheiwise  useful,  may  at  least 
have  the  effect  of  attracting  attention  to  a  subject  of  great 
importance. 


ROUGH  NOTES  TAKEN  ON  A  PLYING  VISIT  TO  THE 
NORTHERN  DISTRICT  OE  BRITISH  HONDURAS. 


The  whole  of  the  northern  district  is  nearly  a  dead  flat,  save  a 
few  small  hillocks  or  ridges,  and  some  shallow  basins  with  a  very 
gentle  incline  from  the  frontier  to  the  sea,  giving  a  slight  undula¬ 
tion  to  a  plain  of  about  one  thousand  square  miles,  covered  with 
the  valuable  native  forest  trees  and  the  rank  vegetation  peculiar  to 
the  Tropics,  excepting  the  patches  of  cultivation,  here  and  there, 
where  the  plantations  and  ranchos  arc  established,  and  a  few  sugar 
heads  begin  to  raise  their  heads. 

There  are  several  lagoons,  and  comparatively  few  swamps  and 
marshes,  with  abundance  of  logwood  and  mahogany.  The  soil  is  a 
vegetable  mould,  a  thin  layer  of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  humus , 
of  some  12  to  18  inches,  deposited  on  a  thick  sub- stratum  of 
decomposed  limestone,  formed  into  a  hard  compact  mass  of  white 
calcareous  marl,  which  may  be  cut  into  blocks  or  burnt  into  a 
carbonate  for  building  purposes  ;  but  as  there  is  no  gravel  or  sand, 
these  would  have  to  be  procured  elsewhere  on  the  coast  to  form 
mortar. 

This  surface  soil,  being  a  rich  black  mould,  is  well  adapted  to 
the  sugar  cane  and  other  tropical  plants.  It  is  thinly  scattered 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


17 


over  the  stony  marl,  to  the  depth,  in  some  localities,  of  only 
3  inches,  increasing  in  thickness  as  you  penetrate  inland,  while,  in 
some  places,  the  ground  is  hare,  and  the  hard  white  marl  crops  out 
and  renders  the  spots  barren  and  unfit  for  cultivation. 

In  the  sinking  of  wells  at  Corosal,  madrepores  have  been  found 
at  a  depth  of  30  feet,  and  recently,  at  Caledonia,  a  bed  of  fossil 
oysters  was  discovered  17  feet  below  the  surface.  The  water  is 
brackish,  dark  and  fetid  at  first,  but  soon  becomes  fit  for  common 
purposes,  but  hardly  ever  to  drink. 

In  the  rainy  season  the  ground  becomes  sticky  and  adhesive 
(viscous),  very  trying  to  man  and  beast ;  but  in  the  dry  it  does  not 
cake  up,  and  crack,  and  burn  like  clay,  but  becomes  friable  and 
crumbles  into  a  fine  powder,  which  the  very  heavy  dews  at  night 
keep  moist  and  fresh.  Hence  it  is,  perhaps,  that  the  canes  might 
ratoon  so  long  as  they  are  said  to  do.  But  still  I  doubt  if  they 
could  do  so  beyond  a  limited  period  without  fallowing  or  manure,  or 
returning  to  the  soil  what  may  have  been  abstracted  by  the  pro¬ 
duce.  The  practice  of  burning  off  the  fields  must  destroy  the 
roots  of  the  canes  and  what  there  is  of  the  soluble  salts  and  volatile 
organic  matters,  substituting  too  much  potash,  and  I  fear  a  long 
drought  would  almost  ruin  the  estates. 

I  have  seen  canes  planted  when  the  first  plantations  were 
opened  up  five  or  six  years  ago,  still  in  a  passably  good  condition, 
but  small,  with  shoit  joints,  and  far  inferior  to  some  in  the  West 
India  Islands,  their  worn-out  and  exhausted  soils  notwithstanding. 
And  I  was  shown  a  field  said  to  be  20  years  ratoons  (!)  without 
manure,  the  canes  of  which,  though  very  poor,  produced  a  fair 
quantum  of  sugar.  As  a  rule,  the  plants  are  not  so  luxuriant,  and 
the  canes  not  so  large  and  succulent  as  those  of  the  southern 
district ;  but  they  appear  to  contain  more  saccharine  matter  in 
proportion.  I  have  been  assured  that  canes  planted  at  the  time  of 
the  Bucalar  exodus,  some  20  years  ago,  have  been  ratooning  ever 
since,  never  supplied  or  manured,  very  sparingly  cleaned  by  cutting 
down  the  brushwood  between,  with  the  macheat,  the  hoe  being 
seldom  used,  except  in  planting,  and  the  plough  is  unknown, 
perhaps  not  as  yet  required, 


18 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


The  uplands  are  so  far  in  the  interior  that  very  little  of  their 
debris  can  reach  these  parts  ;  hence  the  superficial  soil  is  composed 
principally  of  the  decayed  droppings  of  the  forest,  whereas,  in  the 
southern  district,  where  the  hills  are  nearer  the  coast  and  the 
irrigation  greater,  from  the  numerous  streams  that  cross  the  country, 
the  surface  soil  is  alluvial — a  thick  loam  formed  of  the  silt  and  dis¬ 
integrated  matter  of  those  hills. 

It  appears  to  me  that  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Belize 
River  to  Indian  Church  (where  I  am  told  the  limestone  crops  out 
in  blocks  like  marble)  on  the  one  side,  and  another  along  the  Rio 
Hondo  on  the  other  (on  the  north  bank  of  which,  the  Yucatan 
side,  the  highlands  commence),  would  embrace  a  region,  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  which  consists  of  this  thin  surface  soil,  super-posited  on  the 
indurated  marl ;  while  on  the  south  of  the  first  line  the  base  is  a 
true  limestone,  with  a  thick  covering  of  loamy  clay,  in  some  places 
5  to  6  feet  deep.  But  I  am  told  that  to  the  west  of  the  pine 
ridges  about  Booth’s  River,  the  Bravo,  Blue  Creek,  &c.,  the  marl 
is  over-topped  by  a  thick  stratum  of  blue  clay  under  the  surface 
soil. 

I  fix  the  first  line  on  the  River  Belize  because,  from  the  many 
creeks  that  join  it,  and  from  the  conformation  of  the  country,  the 
greater  part  of  the  washings  is  brought  down  on  that  side,  and  at 
the  floodings  the  land  is  submerged  and  the  detritus  spread  over  a 
large  surface,  whereas  comparatively  little  goes  to  the  north,  from 
the  want  of  current  in  the  New  River,  and  the  comparative  paucity 
of  irrigation  there. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Sarstoon,  and  beyond,  the  sub-soil 
is  a  ferruginous  sandstone,  and  the  surface  is  mixed  with  quartz 
pebbles,  mica,  iron  oxide,  comminuted  volcanic  ejecta,  and  the 
remains  of  other  primitive  rocks,  disintegrated  from  the  mountains 
in  the  immediate  vicinity ;  and  I  suspect  that  in  the  course  of 
time,  as  the  country  becomes  more  explored  and  better  developed, 
gold-bearing  quartz  and  other  precious  metals  and  minerals  will  be 
found. 

Corosal,  the  principal  town  in  the  northern  district,  and  the 
oldest  settled  village  in  the  colony,  occupies  an  area  of  about  half  a 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


19 


square  mile,  and  is  situated  on  the  coast,  upon  the  dome  of  a 
cavernous  formation,  indicated  by  the  hollow  sound  of  horses’  hoofs 
as  they  gallop  along  the  streets  ;  and  on  examining  the  ledges  on 
the  sea-shore,  the  old  rotten  crumbling  coralline  deposits  are  seen 
decayed  and  decaying,  porous  and  honey-combed  throughout. 
Indeed,  it  seems  that  a  range  of  reefs  originally  extended  all  the 
way  to  Ambergris  Island  (for  the  banks  of  Consejo,  Rowley’s  Bight, 
Rocky  Point,  and  Bulk  Head,  &c.,  correspond  exactly  with  those 
on  the  opposite  side),  and  being  hollow  and  worn  in  the  manner 
peculiar  to  some  of  the  tertiary  limestone  formations,  must  have 
caved  in,  crumbled  and  sunk,  from  some  internal  convulsion ;  and 
the  sea  rushing  in,  formed  the  Bay  of  Chetumal,  and  the  debris, 
commingling  with  the  waters,  produced  that  thick  sediment  of 
white  clayey  marl  on  the  bottom  in  which  no  fish  can  live,  and  to 
which  the  Hondo  and  the  other  rivers  are  continually  adding,  as 
they  flow  through  channels  of  the  same  calcareous  nature,  impart¬ 
ing  to  the  water  a  milk  white  colour. 

There  are  about  500  houses  in  Corosal,  built  generally  in  the 
rude  native  style,  with  no  flooring,  with  thatched  roofs,  and  sides 
stockaded  and  plastered  with  clay  and  whitewash  ;  but  several  of 
two  stories  have  been  lately  erected  of  stone  and  wood,  boarded 
and  floored  and  arranged  in  regular  order ;  there  is  a  Methodist 
chapel  and  a  fine  large  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  latter  built  of 
stone,  with  a  roomy  residence  for  the  priest  in  the  courtyard 
behind,  and  the  streets  are  laid  out  at  right  angles,  with  a  neat 
little  square  or  plaza  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  little  township  pre¬ 
sents  a  cheerful,  healthy,  and  civilized  appearance. 

There  are  several  schools,  well  attended,  in  which  the  elements 
of  education  are  taught,  and  the  English  and  Spanish  languages 
simultaneously  cultivated  with  success. 

About  six  years  ago,  when  I  first  visited  the  place,  the  street 
fronting  the  sea  was  a  fine  wide  alameda,  but  now  the  water  has 
encroached  very  much,  in  some  places  as  much  as  1 0  feet,  so  that 
the  street  is  considerably  narrowed,  and  unless  banked  up,  the  sea 
will,  in  course  of  time,  reach  the  threshold  of  the  houses  and 
undermine  them  altogether. 


20 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jax.  1,  1870. 


The  population  of  Corosal  proper  is  about  2,000,  chiefly  Indians 
and  Spanish  creoles,  natives  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  with  a  few 
shopkeepers  from  Belize ;  hut  the  whole  estate,  about  60  square 
miles,  contains  about  three  to  four  thousand  souls.  The  fee  simple 
is  in  Mr.  John  Carmichael,  who  rents  out  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  land,  and  receives  an  income  of  about  10,000  dollars  per 
annum. 

The  place  is  dotted  over  with  several  little  plantations  called 
“ranchos”  and  “  milpas,”  10,  20,  to  100  acres  in  extent,  where, 
besides  the  sugar  cane,  plantains,  corn,  rice,  and  other  provisions 
are  grown,  and  sugar  and  rum  manufactured  in  a  primitive  way, 
with  small  alembics,  rudely  constructed,  and  wooden  mills  worked 
by  cattle  ;  but  the  produce  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  realizes  a  remunerative  price  at  the  Belize  market.  They 
carry  on  their  operations  at  a  comparatively  low  expenditure,  as 
their  labourers  are  chiefly  their  own  countrymen  (native  Indians), 
who  are  content  with  but  little  pay  and  no  rations. 

Mr.  Carmichael  himself  has  two  or  three  sugar  estates,  one  with 
the  appliances  of  steam  ;  but  he  has  sold  out  one  or  two  to  some  of 
the  American  immigrants  lately  settled  there. 

He  is  now  settled  on  San  Andres  estate,  the  first  spot  settled 
upon  by  the  Spaniards  at  the  exode  from  Bucalar  about  20  years 
ago,  and  where  sugar  was  first  made  in  this  colony,  and  where  it  is 
still  made  from  canes  said  to  have  been  planted  at  that  time  and 
ratooning  ever  since,  without  manure  and  without  culture,  save 
such  as  is  peculiar  to  the  rough  system  of  the  native  ;  but,  from 
the  plan  he  has  lately  adopted,  the  estate  has  improved  wonder¬ 
fully.  The  canes  look  well,  though  I  cannot  compliment  him  on 
the  tillage.  The  grass  and  brushwood  are  still  permitted  to  grow 
up  with  the  cane,  and  are  not  destroyed  till  after  crop,  when  the 
fields  are  burnt  off  and  the  stumps  and  germs  allowed  to  sprout 
again,  and  weeds,  and  bush,  and  cane  grow  up  together  till  next 
crop,  very  little  weeding  being  performed  in  the  meantime. 

The  canes,  like  on  all  other  estates,  are  planted  too  near  (6  feet 
apart  is  the  usual  distance  in  the  Islands),  and  not  deep  enough. 
The  subsoil  should  be  turned  up  by  deep  ploughing  and  holing,  so 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


21 


that  the  roots  of  the  cane  might  penetrate  the  marl,  which,  how¬ 
ever  forbidding  in  look,  when  crumbled  and  mixed  with  sufficient 
vegetable  soil,  affords  abundant  nourishment  to  the  cane. 

All  planters  know  that  the  root  of  the  cane  has  a  tendency  to 
grow  out  of  the  soil,  and  when  the  plant  has  but  a  thin  covering, 
the  rains  soon  wash  that  away  and  leave  the  plant  exposed  to  the 
scorching  rays  of  the  sun.  Add  to  this  the  annual  burning  off  of 
the  fields,  and  one  can  easily  guess  how  long  a  piece  would 
ratoon. 

Resides,  when  planted  closely  together,  the  leaves  soon  inter¬ 
twine  and  mingle,  and  the  field  becomes  impenetrable,  leaving  no 
room  for  the  passage  of  air,  or  the  necessary  weeding  and  banking 
during  the  progress  of  growth.  A  fair  distance  gives  large  stools 
and  full  succulent  canes  ;  too  close  furnishes  numerous  little  reeds 
with  no  substance,  choking  one  another,  and  struggling  for  the 
tittle  of  nourishment  to  be  divided  amongst  so  many  sprouts. 

There  is  also  too  great  a  waste  of  megass  on  all  the  estates.  In 
a  country  like  this,  where  wood  is  so  abundant  and  near  at  hand, 
it  should  be  used  as  fuel  instead  of  megass,  which,  together  with 
the  cane  tops,  should  be  returned  to  the  soil,  green,  so  as  to  com¬ 
pensate  for  the  substances  withdrawn  in  the  sugar.  The  great 
principle  in  agriculture  is  to  return  to  the  soil  in  one  way  or 
another,  by  manure,  green  bush,  top  dressing,  alternate  crops, 
fallowing,  &c.,  as  much  as  possible  of  the  matter  abstracted  by  the 
cultivation,  and  where  this  is  neglected,  the  richest  soil  soon 
becomes  exhausted  and  the  estate  goes  to  grief ;  still,  San  Andres 
has  already  made  50  casks  (about  40  tons),  and  expects  to  make  at 
least  100  more,  on  a  cultivation  of  100  acres ;  and  as  the  proprietor 
is  an  energetic,  persevering,  old  gentleman,  I  have  no  doubt  that 
he  will  eventually  effect  a  great  change,  and  end  in  established 
success — a  destiny  I  most  sincerely  wish  he  may  soon  accomplish. 

Caledonia  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  laid  out  estates  in  the 
quarter.  Messrs.  Kindred  &  Phillips  have  spared  no  expense  in 
fitting  it  up.  They  have  imported  one  of  Fletcher’s  largest  engines, 
capable  of  producing  1 0  tons  a  day,  and  the  works  are  erected  on  a 
solid  foundation  and  on  regular  scientific  principles,  with  all  the 


22 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


appliances  and  modern  improvements,  coming  up  to  the  hest  I 
have  seen  in  any  of  the  Islands,  and  similar,  I  understand,  to  the 
one  now  being  erected  by  Messrs.  Young,  Toledo,  and  Co.,  at 
Seven  Hills.  It  has  three  clarifiers  and  two  taches,  with  the 
usual  battery  of  three  coppers  (called  here  “kettles”),  hut  the 
engine  can  well  supply  a  double  set.  "With  less  than  500  acres  in 
canes,  and  100  mules  and  100  head  of  oxen,  the  estate,  in  my 
opinion,  cannot  he  profitably  worked.  The  proprietors,  however, 
I  understand,  do  not  contemplate  any  further  improvements  (save 
extending  the  cultivation)  till  they  are  satisfied  as  to  the  success 
of  the  Concretor  principle. 

They  have  about  250  acres  in  canes  at  present,  but  only  about 
half  can  be  made  available  this  crop,  some  of  which  are  two  year 
ratoons  and  stand  overs,  and  do  not  yield  very  much  just  now  ;  but 
the  next  two  or  three  months  are  the  best  yielding  season,  when 
doubtless  the  juice  will  improve.  The  rest  are  young  plants,  clean 
and  healthy,  and  coming  on  luxuriantly.  They  have  30  tierces  on 
the  stanchions,  and  I  calculate  they  ought  to  make  150  tons  this 
year.  The  number  of  gallons  of  juice  to  the  ton  of  sugar  ranges 
from  1,500  to  3,000,  and  the  density  per  Baume  is  from  10°  to  13°. 

The  planters  all  make  a  larger  estimate  of  the  produce  of  their 
fields,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  any  estate  has  ever  realised  an  aver¬ 
age  of  more  than  two  tons  the  acre.  In  fact,  the  experiment  has 
never  been  tried  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  for  the  simple  reason 
that  there  has  never  been  (and  there  is  not  yet)  an  estate  proper, 
regularly  established  long  enough  to  have  fairly  tried  it  on. 

On  some  detached  pieces  or  isolated  patches,  where  the  soil  is 
deeper  than  usual,  a  larger  proportion  may  doubtless  have  been 
obtained,  hut  I  question  whether  three  and  four  tons  per  acre 
should  be  taken  as  a  general  estimate  throughout.  At  the  same 
time  I  must  in  candour  and  fairness  say,  that  in  the  face  of  the 
Rancheros’  system  of  cultivation,  or  rather  want  of  system,  the 
fact  of  their  being  able  to  work  their  own  little  plantations  at  a 
fair  profit,  notwithstanding  their  negligence  of  the  cane  from  its 
first  sprouting  to  its  maturity,  and  the  other  fact  of  many  of  the 
larger  fields  ratooning  for  several  years  without  scientific  culture 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


23 


and  continuing  to  produce  an  extraordinary  yield,  show  the  marvel¬ 
lous  fertility  of  the  soil ;  and  that  in  spite  of  the  lightness  of  the 
upper  strata,  there  must  be  some  properties  in  it  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  growth  and  sustenance  of  the  plant.  This  anomaly  of  the 
long  duration  and  extraordinary  yield  of  the  cane  here  is  so  often 
reiterated  by  every  planter,  that  one  becomes  at  last  almost  recon¬ 
ciled  to  the  apparent  paradox. 

They  are  still  levelling  down  the  forests,  clearing  out  land,  and 
opening  up  roads  at  Caledonia,  but  it  requires  a  large  capital  to 
carry  out  these  tentative  operations,  and  some  years  must  elapse 
before  a  good  return  on  the  outlay  can  begin  to  flow  in  ;  for  in  the 
first  year  only  half  of  the  cleared  land  can  be  planted,  the  other 
half  being  occupied  by  the  dead  stumps.  In  the  second  year  they 
may  have  rotted  or  to  be  easier  rooted  out,  so  that  it  is  only  in  the 
third  year  after  felling  that  one  can  look  for  a  fair  return  out  of  a 
given  area  planted ;  and  even  then  another  year  must  pass  before 
the  maximum  yield  can  be  expected,  for  plant  canes  seldom  produce 
so  much  sugar  as  first  and  second  ratoons  well  cared  for,  and  it  is 
only  then  that  the  cane  arrives  at  full  yielding  condition.  'Where 
then  is  the  estate  here  of  which  it  can  be  said  this  result  has  been 
fully  realized? 

There  is  a  growing  village  at  the  Barcadier  at  Caledonia,  by  the 
river-bank,  which  at  present  contains  about  40  huts,  where  the 
labourers  and  some  independent  settlers  are  located,  and  a  little 
retail  shop  supplies  many  necessaries  from  Belize,  which  is  a  great 
convenience  to  the  people.  Besides  this,  some  20  new  huts  have 
been  erected  nearer  the  works  for  future  hands,  and  a  tramway  is 
about  to  be  constructed  from  the  works  to  the  shipping  place,  so 
that,  upon  the  whole,  the  future  prospects  of  the  property  are  very 
hopeful  and  encouraging. 

The  other  estates  in  the  quarter  are  on  a  smaller  scale  than 
Caledonia,  with  inferior  engines  and  machinery.  I  did  not  visit 
them  all,  but  I  understand  that  they  are  all  more  or  less  on  a  par. 
On  those  I  visited  the  canes  are  mostly  old  ratoons  and  stand  overs, 
and  the  fields  appear  neglected  if  not  exhausted,  and  some  of  them 
require  new  land  to  be  opened  up,  excepting  Tower  Hill  and  Indian 


24 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


Church,  which  I  understand  are  in  a  very  flourishing  condition. 
Large  improvements  are  being  made  on  all  of  them,  in  the  works 
and  in  the  fields,  by  the  American  planters  lately  arrived,  and  I 
am  told  most  excellent  sugar,  purified  with  sulphur,  is  made  at 
Tower  Hill  by  Mr.  Price,  the  manager,  from  Louisiana ;  but  this 
description  of  sugar  does  not  keep,  as  it  soon  becomes  infected  with 
vermin. 

Indian  Church  is  the  crack  estate  of  the  quarter,  and  more  exten¬ 
sively  cultivated  than  any.  I  regret  that  time  did  not  permit  me 
to  reach  that  length,  as  it  is  said  that  the  soil  is  deeper  and  richer 
than  in  other  parts,  the  geological  features  more  fully  developed, 
and  the  scenery  around  more  picturesque ;  the  canes  of  enormous 
size,  larger  than  those  in  the  south  and  yielding  abundantly.  A 
large  engine  is  being  erected  with  powerful  machinery,  &c.,  on  a 
new  principle,  with  all  the  appliances  and  modern  improvements, 
and  a  Concretor  is  about  to  be  added  and  several  scientific  operations 
commenced.  The  British  Honduras  Company  were  the  first,  I 
believe,  to  take  the  initiative  and  attempt  to  lead  the  industry  of 
the  country  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  they  have  been  at  vast 
expense  to  promote  the  success  of  sugar  making ;  and  although  they 
have  had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with,  and  have  met  with 
many  disappointments,  their  enterprise  has  not  slackened,  and  they 
are  still  persevering  in  their  efforts  and  continuing  in  the  race  of 
progress,  and,  I  hope,  prosperity. 

It  appears  to  be  the  rule  not  to  weed  or  trouble  the  canes  once 
they  are  cut,  for  almost  every  field  that  I  saw  was  unweeded  and 
choked  up  with  weeds,  and  yet  they  make  sugar.  Every  planter 
knows  that  unless  the  canes  are  weeded  two  or  three  times  while 
sprouting,  till  they  overshadow  the  ground  before  the  weeds  spring 
up,  it  will  be  impossible  to  go  through  them  with  the  hoe  after 
they  are  grown  up  ;  but  here  they  do  not  seem  to  know  the  pithy 
proverb  of  the  windward  and  leeward  islands,  that — 
u  The  sugar  is  made  in  the  field, 

11  The  boiling  house  shows  but  the  yield, 

“  And  there,  as  your  canes  are  kept  clean, 

“  So  here’s  the  effect  fully  seen.” 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR,  CANE. 


25 


But,  indeed,  there  are  very  few  really  energetic  practical  men  in 
in  tlic  colony  acquainted  with  the  routine  of  tropical  plantership  ; 
and  no  regular  system  of  cultivation  is  adopted,  all,  with  very  few 
exceptions  indeed,  are  as  yet  mere  theorists  and  experimentalists, 
groping  in  the  dark,  and  it  is  only  surprising  that  they  have  hitherto 
got  on  so  well. 

All  the  estates  have  huts  ready  built  for  the  labourers,  where 
they  appear  comfortable  enough,  but  the  women  do  not  work  in  the 
fields  or  attend  the  mill  and  megass  as  in  the  islands ;  they  remain 
at  home  to  cook  their  husbands’  meals  and  attend  to  other  domestic 
avocations. 

The  sugar  is  of  a  rather  dark  colour,  (except  what  is  made 
expressly  for  local  consumption)  though  of  good  grain  ;  but  I  believe 
this  is  done  to  order,  as  it  is  found  that  the  difference  in  the  price 
of  the  finer  sorts  in  the  home  markets  is  not  equivalent  to  the 
difference  in  the  duty. 

Orange  Walk  is  the  next  village  of  importance  in  the  district. 
It  is  situated  about  30  miles  from  Corosal,  on  a  little  rising  ground 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  going  up,  from  which  a  fine  view  of 
the  country  round  can  be  obtained.  The  lots  are  not,  as  at  Corosal, 
rented  out  to  parties,  but  arc  mostly  the  freeholds  of  the  occupants. 

They  are  all  railed  in,  and  have  their  outhouses  and  little  kitchen 
and  flower  gardens,  their  poultry  yard,  “corals”  and  “patios,” 
cosily  and  neatly  arrainged  within,  which  give  the  whole  a  very 
lively  and  animated  appearance.  While  the  troops  were  there  a 
considerable  amount  of  business  was  done,  but  the  place  suffered 
very  much  from  the  fire  of  the  last  two  years,  and  is  now  but 
slowly  recovering  from  the  shock.  There  are  about  200  houses, 
amongst  them  several  gay  little  shops,  with  a  good  variety  of  articles 
from  Belize,  and  the  population  numbers  at  present  about  800  souls, 
consisting  principally  of  logwood  cutters,  rancheros,  and  labourers 
on  the  neighbouring  estates. 

San  Esteban  is  a  neat  little  village  on  the  left  bank  going  up, 
midway  between  Caledonia  and  Orange  Walk.  Don  Florencio  Yega 
is  the  proprietor,  who  receives  about  2000  dols.  rental  from  the 
occupiers.  It  contains  about  200  houses  and  1000  souls,  chiefly 


26 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


logwood  cutters  and  builders  of  bungays  and  other  small  craft. 
A  great  quantity  of  corn,  plantains,  pigs,  poultry,  &c.,  used  to  be 
produced  here  and  at  Orange  Walk  for  the  supply  of  the  district 
as  well  as  Belize,  but  it  is  not  in  a  very  flourishing  condition 
just  now. 

There  are  other  villages  and  little  settlements  about  with  small 
clusters  of  population,  such  as  Xaibe,  Consejo,  Sartaneja,  Rocky 
Point,  &c.,  but  I  had  not  time  to  visit  them. 

The  roads  about  are  wide  and  good,  intersecting  the  country  in 
various  directions,  and  affording  easy  intercommunication  and 
pleasant  riding  to  the  different  estates  and  ranchos,  but  the  New 
River  is  the  principal  highway  for  travellers  up  country.  It  runs 
from  above  the  lagoon  at  Indian  Church,  down  to  the  bight  in 
Corosal  bay,  some  100  miles,  navigable  all  the  way  for  small  craft, 
and  the  estates  are  conveniently  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
banks  for  the  shipment  of  their  produce. 

It  is  a  dull  sluggish  stream,  with  no  rapids  and  little  or  no 
current,  and  it  seldom  or  never  overflows  its  banks,  as  all  the 
backwater  flows  through  black  creek  into  the  Belize  river.  Hence 
the  want  of  alluvium  on  this  side,  and  the  superabundance  on  that. 
Besides  this,  there  are  only  the  northern  river  and  fresh  water  creek 
to  irrigate  the  land,  and  these  are  comparatively  small  streams,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  lack  of  moisture,  and  the  water  is  not  fresh 
but  brackish,  and  hardly  drinkable  even  up  to  Indian  Church. 

The  navigation  is  tedious  and  monotonous,  as  it  is  a  poling  all  the 
way  in  bungays,  or  paddling  in  canoes  amongst  bush  and  jungle 
and  along  a  swampy  margin  till  one  gets  up  to  the  source.  But, 
San  Esteban  is  a  sort  of  half-way  house,  and  I  was  agreeably  sur¬ 
prised  when  I  landed  there  on  the  10th  of  Eebruary,  to  find  the 
people  in  the  midst  of  this  wilderness  celebrating  this  carnival. 
The  men  neatly  dressed,  and  the  women,  some  very  pretty  Indian 
girls  amongst  them,  in  a  peculiar  national  costume,  decorated  and 
adorned  with  many  gold  chains  and  brilliant  jewels  in  a  very  tasty 
manner,  gracefully  dancing  and  enjoying  themselves  on  the  open 
lawn — thus  presenting  an  agreeable  contrast  to  the  sameness  of  the 
scene  we  had  just  passed  through. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


27 


There  are  several  artificial  mounds,  cairns,  or  tumuli  in  different 
places,  built  up  of  the  native  marlstone,  the  uses  of  which  remains 
a  mystery  to  this  day.  They  appear  to  have  served  as  a  sort  of 
watch  towers  or  beacons  to  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  but  no  one 
can  now  tell  flic  exact  purpose  for  which  they  were  constructed. 

At  Caledonia  in  particular  is  a  range  of  seven,  disposed  in  a  sort 
of  crescent  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  which  seem  to  have  sub¬ 
served  the  purpose  of  a  fortification  at  the  entrance  of  a  town  or 
city.  Many  blocks  of  the  stone  that  have  been  dug  up  shew  evident 
marks  of  art  and  skilled  workmanship,  and  some  people  think  they 
must  have  been  used  as  mausoleums  for  the  dead,  but  one  or  two 
that  have  been  excavated  have  not  confirmed  the  supposition. 
Several  little  images  were  found,  some  of  baked  clay,  shewing  great 
ingenuity,  and  some  carved  out  of  the  native  stone,  in  excellent 
preservation,  their  delicate  chiselings  proving  that  the  artists, 
whosoever  they  were,  had  attained  to  considerable  perfection  in 
sculpture. 

At  Corosal  are  many  large  ones  scattered  about,  several  of  which 
I  inspected  on  a  former  occasion.  One  was  about  60  feet  high, 
with  a  large  circular  base  tapering  at  top  like  a  truncated  cone  or 
pyramid;  and  another  about  100  feet  square,  bearing  north  and 
south,  divided  into  several  compartments  of  different  dimensions, 
evidently  a  sort  of  palace  or  temple,  with  reception  hall,  chambers, 
and  anti-chambers,  &c.,  all  ruinate  and  crumbling  into  dust.  The 
mystery  of  these  buildings  I  apprehend  will  never  be  cleared  up. 

Many  of  the  inhabitants  who  quitted  at  the  time  of  the  Indian 
panic  are  now  gradually  returning,  and  the  people  all  appear  lively, 
industrious  and  thrifty ;  and  this  being  crop-time,  and  the  estates 
in  full  operation,  the  labourers  are  fully  occupied,  cheerful  and 
happy,  and  seem  to  have  no  more  fear  of  Indian  raids  or  any  other 
bug-bear.  They  are,  however,  a  little  awkward  at  their  new 
employments,  and  somewhat  disorganised,  or  rather,  I  should  say, 
not  yet  properly  organised  to  plantation  work,  but  this  was  to  be 
expected  in  the  infancy  of  a  new  regime,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that 
with  good  management  and  care,  and  proper  temper  and  tact,  they 
will  eventually  be  induced  to  take  to  their  new  vocation  con  amore. 


28 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


There  is  an  Indian  custom,  a  great  festival,  annually  held  here, 
called  the  “Xaibe  Eiesta,”  which  tends  in  no  small  degree  to 
demoralize  the  labouring  population.  In  the  first  week  in  the 
month  of  May,  when  the  southern  cross  is  on  the  meridian  about 
midnight,  the  Indians,  accompanied  by  the  other  labourers  from  all 
parts  of  the  district,  and  patronised  by  the  gentry,  assemble  at  the 
village  of  Xaihe  to  celebrate  the  feast  for  a  week,  with  dancing, 
drinking,  and  gambling,  and  all  sorts  of  licentious  dissipation.  The 
square  in  the  centre  of  the  village,  where,  by  the  way,  there  is  a 
Roman  Catholic  Chapel,  is  crowded  with  little  booths  and  tables, 
on  which  liquors  are  exposed  for  sale,  and  gaming  with  cards  and 
dice  is  carried  on  night  and  day.  The  'first  day  is  devoted  to  the 
Indians  proper,  when  a  number  of  women  called  “  Mestizas,”  in 
gawdy,  fantastic  dresses,  their  hair  decorated  with  long  streamers 
of  bright  coloured  ribbon,  and  their  persons  with  a  profusion  of  gold 
ornaments,  bracelets,  chains,  amulets,  &c.,  assemble  in  a  large  barn 
open  at  the  sides,  and  built  expressly  for  the  purpose,  and  com¬ 
mence  dancing  to  a  dull  monotonous  air,  with  the  men  of  their 
tribe  called,  “  Vaqueros,”  who  take  them  out  singly,  one  after  the 
other,  and  perform  a  sort  of  war  dance,  in  a  tame,  lifeless,  unimpas¬ 
sioned  manner,  apparently,  however,  very  significant  and  full  of 
meaning  to  themselves;  the  men  making  sundry  genuflexions, 
gestures,  and  gyrations,  by  no  means  very  intelligible,  till  they  have 
gone  through  the  whole  circle  of  attending  women.  These,  without 
grace  or  elegance  in  their  movements,  their  dull  stolid  faces  and 
vacant  empty  gaze,  expressive  neither  of  animation  or  enjoyment, 
hop  about,  listlessly,  like  so  many  automata ;  while  a  great  con¬ 
course  of  the  gentle  and  simple  crowd  around  to  look  on. 

It  is  the  practice  to  select  a  stranger,  and,  nolens  volens ,  powerless 
to  decline  the  honour,  elect  him  master  of  the  feast.  He  is  then 
taken  to  another  part  of  the  square,  placed  in  a  litter  made  of  twigs 
and  branches,  and  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  four  men,  who, 
preceded  by  a  band  of  music  and  followed  by  a  crowd,  march  in 
triumphant  procession  all  round  the  square,  and  then  take  him  into 
the  barn  and  place  him  in  a  chair  at  one  end  of  the  room.  The 
fairest  lady  of  the  company,  previously  decided  upon,  is  then  chosen 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


29 


and  placed  beside  him  as  his  consort.  He  is  then  said  to  represent 
a  great  lord  of  the  manor  or  casique  presiding  over  the  amusements 
of  his  subjects.  There  he  sits  for  hours,  with  no  very  comfortable 
feelings,  undergoing  a  sort  of  penance,  looking  at  the  dancors,  and 
inwardly  reflecting  on  the  degradation  to  which  the  selfish  policy 
of  man  may  reduce  his  species.  After  the  dance  is  over  he  calls  up 
the  women  one  by  one,  compliments  them  on  their  performance  and 
their  good  behaviour  during  the  past  year,  and  pays  them  off  their 
wages  in  hard  cash.  Heretofore,  this  used  to  be  in  dollars,  but 
latterly,  from  one  shilling  to  half  a  crown  is  the  range,  according  to 
the  liberality  of  his  lordship’s  temperament,  and  which  in  the  end 
amounts  to  a  good  round  sum ;  so  that,  eventually,  the  temporary 
casique  finds  he  has  been  most  woefully  sold,  and  has  had  to  pay 
dearly  for  his  involuntary  honours. 

After  this,  he  and  his  consort  retire  to  enjoy  a  sumptuous  dejeuner, 
prepared  in  another  building,  leaving  the  Indians  to  indulge,  to 
their  heart’s  content,  in  a  liberal  supply  of  corn  cakes,  tortillas,  and 
catamalas,  and  revel  in  exciting  libations  to  their  traditional  gods 
and  heroes. 

In  the  evening  the  gentry  and  visitors  take  their  turn,  and 
commence  dancing  to  music  of  a  more  civilized  and  intelligent  sort, 
performed  by  the  same  professors,  who,  to  do  them  justice,  acquit 
themselves  very  creditably  on  violins,  pipes,  and  brass  instruments. 

The  next  night  the  same  orgies  are  repeated,  (except  that  part 
appropriate  to  the  Indians)  all  the  company  mixing  together  pro¬ 
miscuously,  and  having  a  jolly  bout  of  it  till  the  peep  of  day. 
This  is  continued  day  and  night  during  the  whole  week,  accompanied 
with  gambling,  discharging  of  guns,  display  of  fireworks,  &c.,  the 
employers  taking  it  by  turns  to  defray  the  expense,  and  contributing, 
by  their  presence  and  participation,  to  encourage  and  perpetuate 
this  ruinous  custom,  a  relict  of  the  superstitious  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  a  barbarous  age.  To  the  credit  of  the  people  be  it  said  that  rows 
and  shindies  seldom  occur.  The  Indian  drinks  his  fill  and  quietly 
lays  him  down  to  sleep  out  his  debauch. 

The  consequence  of  all  this  is,  that  for  the  next  fortnight  no 
work  is  done.  The  labourers  take  the  first  week  to  rest  themselves 


30 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan,  1,  1870. 


and  recover  from  the  effects  of  their  dissipation,  and  in  the  second 
week  they  resort  to  their  milpas,  to  prepare  their  grounds  for  the 
planting  season,  now  fast  approaching ;  while  the  master,  anxious 
to  take  in  the  rest  of  his  produce  before  the  rains  set  in,  is  left  to 
finish  his  operations  as  best  he  may,  and  sometimes  the  wet  over¬ 
takes  him  with  a  great  part  of  his  canes  still  in  the  ground,  which 
he  is  thus  compelled  to  leave  as  stand  overs  for  another  year,  to  his 
great  detriment  and  loss ;  and  thus  hundreds  of  pounds  are  yearly 
sacrificed  to  the  shade  of  a  savage  custom  which  injures  the 
interests  of  the  employer,  corrupts  the  morals  of  the  people,  and 
promotes  a  degree  of  vice  and  depravity,  that  has  become  a  public 
scandal,  to  tolerate  yrliich  is  a  disgrace  and  a  reproach  to  a  civilized 
community. 

The  planters  are  all  aware  of  the  evil  tendency  of  this  odious 
sartumalia,  and  say,  in  self  defence,  that  they  are  obliged  to  connive 
at  it  in  order  to  keep  their  people  in  good  humour,  and  induce  them 
to  remain  in  their  service ;  but,  however  much  this  necessity  might 
have  been  felt  in  the  infancy  of  the  colony,  when  the  staple  of  the 
country  was  mahogany  and  logwood,  which  required  no  continuous 
labour  save  at  one  season  of  the  year ;  now  that  attention  is  to  be 
turned  to  agriculture,  and  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  the  cane 
and  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  which,  more  than  any  other  species  of 
industry,  require  constant  application  and  uninterrupted  labour ;  to 
submit  to  such  a  sacrifice  at  the  shrine  of  Bacchus,  and  countenance 
and  encourage  a  usage  whose  advent  occurs  at  a  critical  time,  in 
the  midst  of  crop,  when  the  utmost  energy  and  exertion  are 
required  to  reap  the  reward  of  all  the  planter’s  previous  toil — is  a 
suicidal  policy  that  must  subvert  his  best  interests,  and  entail  ruin 
in  the  end. 

Y/hy  not  unite  to  abolish  it  altogether,  or  substitute  another 
season,  either  during  the  Christmas  holidays  or  after  crop,  as  a  sort 
of  harvest  home,  to  celebrate  these  revelries ;  gradually  divesting 
them  of  their  heathenish  accompaniments,  till  time  shall  eventually 
wipe  off  the  recollection  of  those  ancient  traditions,  and  connect  the 
festivities  with  more  modem  and  enlightened  associations,  and 
thus,  imperceptibly,  wean  over  the  Indian  to  the  change  ? 


Jax.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


31 


The  hull  fights  that  used  to  he  the  sine  qua  non  of  these  revels 
have  been  suddenly  abolished,  and  I  see  no  reason  why  the 
Bacchanalian  accessories  may  not  also  be  finally  exterminated. 

(To  be  continued  J 


SUGAR,  GLUCOSE,  AND  SACCI1ARMETRY. 

Br  M.  Dubeuxfatjt, 

( Continued  from  page  213.) 

Thus,  if  we  take  a  given  weight  of  inverted  sugar  and  transform 
it  by  means  of  the  sodic  or  potassic  reaction,  as  is  done  in  our 
method  of  alkaline  saccharimetry,  this  product  will  no  longer 
act  upon  the  copper ;  but  if  this  transformation  has  been  accom¬ 
plished  by  means  of  lime,  as  often  happens  in  the  refinery  and 
sugar  factory,  the  glucose  will  still  be  able  to  reduce  the  oxide  of 
copper  to  a  certain  extent ;  nevertheless,  there  will  be  this  differ¬ 
ence,  that  the  glucose  which  before  the  action  by  lime  would 
have  indicated  two  per  cent.,  will  now  indicate  only  one.  We  may 
then  conclude  from  this  that  the  action  of  inverted  sugar  has 
different  exponents  before  and  after  the  treatment  by  lime,  and 
that  these  two  exponents  bear  the  proportion  of  two  to  one.* 

Thus,  we  may  understand  that  in  applying  the  test  to  products 
which  contain  glucose  transformed  into  calcic  salts  by  the  lime, 
these  salts  may  yet  act  in  the  same  manner  as  glucose  itself.  We 
have  seen  molasses  which,  affected  by  this  cause  have  indicated  on 
analysis  10  per  cent,  of  glucose,  when  in  fact  it  contained  only  2 
per  cent. ;  and  as  the  molasses  was  intended  for  the  distillery  whero 
glucose  is  accounted  as  sugar,  the  error  committed  was  entirely  to 
the  prejudice  of  the  buyer. 

In  sugar  a  similar  error  would  be  to  the  prejudice  of  the  seller 


*  The  state  of  our  investigations  into  this  kind  of  reactions  is  not  suffi¬ 
ciently  advanced  to  enable  us  to  draw  up  definitely  a  precise  statement  of 
facts.  Wo  confine  ourselves  to  pointing  out  some  of  these  in  a  summary 
manner,  intending  to  revert  again  to  the  question  before  long. 


32 


THE  SUGAR  CAHE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


if  the  correction  of  the  glucose  co-efficient  was  applied  to  it.  Our 
alkaline  method  applied  in  these  conditions  does  not  correct  the 
error  which  we  ha^e  noted  j  in  fact,  the  derivatives  of  glucose  pro¬ 
duced  by  lime  give  the  same  indications  as  glucose  in  the  alkaline 
test. 

It  is  to  avoid  these  causes  of  error  that  we  have  indicated  the 
following  modification  of  our  alkaline  saccharimetrical  method. 

Instead  of  destroying  the  glucose  by  standardised  alkaline  liquid, 
sodic  or  potassic,  we  destroy  it  by  a  standardised  solution  of  sucrate 
of  lime  of  sufficient  strength  exactly  to  neutralize  the  sulphuric 
liquid  of  Gay-Lussac. 

The  amount  of  lime  which  disappears  by  heating  glucose  to  the 
boiling  point  corresponds  very  nearly  to  1|  equivalents,  as  with 
the  sodic  liquid,  and  thus  the  proportion  of  glucose  may  be 
estimated  with  some  degree  of  certainty  and  with  approximate 
correctness. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  process  is  not  so 
sensitive  as  the  copper  test,  and  that  it  cannot  be  applied  to  minute 
proportions  of  glucose  ;  but  it  compensates  for  this  imperfection  by 
removing  the  chances  of  error  which  we  have  noted.  It  is,  in  fact, 
by  this  means  that  we  have  been  able  to  prove  that  a  molasses 
which  under  the  copper  test  indicated  10  per  cent,  of  glucose,  in 
reality  only  contained  2  per  cent. 

At  all  events  this  method,  well  managed  will  be  a  useful  means 
of  verifying  other  processes.  Thus,  with  the  copper  test  applied 
in  the  search  for  glucose,  if  the  presence  of  calcic  derivatives 
showing  as  glucose  is  suspected,  it  may  be  recognised  by  the 
sucrate  of  lime  process,  which  will  separate  the  two  products ;  by 
using  the  sodic  method,  we  should  transform  the  glucose  and  its 
calcic  derivatives  into  products  which  are  in  no  degree  affected 
by  the  copper  or  lime  tests. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  collection  of  processes  valuable  as  capable 
of  determining  the  presence  of  glucose  in  the  products  of  our  sugar 
factories.  They  may  in  addition  furnish  other  useful  indications,  and 
make  known  for  example  whether  the  glucose  is  produced  during 
the  process  of  manufacture. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CAHE. 


33 


Generally  the  salts  of  lime  which  are  found  in  the  residual 
molasses  are  produced  from  transformed  glucose,  which  has  given 
birth  to  the  derived  acids ;  and  as  these  acids  are  indicated  by  the 
copper  and  sodic  tests,  it  is  always  possible  by  the  use  of  these 
means,  in  the  way  we  have  pointed  out,  to  determine  (as  far  as 
regards  the  glucose  impurity)  the  true  value  of  the  processes  which 
have  been  employed  in  the  manufacture. 

It  is  by  the  use  of  methods  of  this  kind  applied  to  molasses 
that  we  have  been  able,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  cause,  to  form  a 
judgment  on  the  errors  of  the  new  methods  of  manufacture,  on  the 
faults  of  the  sugars  sold  to  the  refiners,  and,  in  short,  on  the  evils 
which  these  products  introduce  into  the  operation  of  the  refineries. 

"We  do  not  yet  know  the  exact  value  of  the  co-efficient  which 
should  be  equitably  applied  to  the  glucose  previously  existing  in 
the  sugars  of  commerce.  It  has  been  proposed  to  deduct  from  the 
saccharimetiical  value,  once  or  twice  the  weight  of  the  glucose 
found,  and  although  these  corrections  may  be  the  most  frequently 
too  small,  yet  it  will  protect  the  sellers,  who  believe  themselves 
already  great  losers  by  the  application  of  the  co-efficient  fivo 
applied  to  the  salts. 

Upon  this  delicate  point,  it  is  our  duty  to  pronounce  our  unre¬ 
served  opinion,  whatever  may  be  the  consequences ;  we  owe  it  to  the 
truth,  to  true  progress,  and  to  the  prosperity  of  an  industry  which 
is  of  importance  to  us  in  more  ways  than  one. 

The  defective  methods  of  manufacture  which  have  been  adopted 
by  the  producer  of  sugar  are  the  primary  cause  of  the  evils  which 
we  have  noted  in  the  refined  sugars  of  commerce.  These  evils 
might  exist  at  a  former  period,  but  then  they  were  the  conse¬ 
quences  of  the  normal  glucose  impurity  of  colonial  sugars. 

During  the  whole  time  that  the  sugar  industry  carefully  prac¬ 
tised  the  alkaline  system,  refined  beet  sugars  were  free  from 
glucose  as  well  as  the  raw ;  and  when  it  was  found  in  tho 
products  of  refineries  worked  on  this  principle,  it  had  its  source  in 
the  admixture  of  colonial  sugars  and  in  the  erroneous  methods  used 
in  refining. 

In  fact,  we  may  recollect  that  at  another  period  the  slowness  of 

c 


34 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


the  process,  and  the  system  followed  in  refineries  were  peculiarly 
favourable  to  the  transformation  of  crystallizable  sugar  into  glucose 
by  fermentation. 

"We  have  proved  by  experiment  that  beet  sugars  actually  sold 
and  delivered  are  often  acid,  and  if  they  are  slightly  alkaline  on 
leaving  the  factories,  they  lose  this  character  after  being  ware¬ 
housed  a  short  time. 

We  have  proved  by  analysis  of  some  boxes  of  the  official  standard 
sugar  that  this  alteration  is  produced  in  time,  even  in  the  small 
samples ;  and  that  this  modification  appears  to  be  the  more  active 
and  the  more  rapid  when  the  recently  made  sugar  is  of  whiter  colour. 

What  can  be  more  paradoxical  than  these  facts  ?  It  is 
generally,  and  always  has  been  believed,  that  the  whiteness  of 
the  sugar  is  an  indication  of  its  purity :  that  the  whitest  sugars 
are  the  purest,  and  keep  the  best. 

Is  this  principle  false?  We  do  not  admit  it;  but  the  case  we 
are  considering  is  exceptional,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand  and 
explain  it. 

The  calcic  boiling  in  the  free  air,  which  produced  good  akaline 
sugars  in  the  old  process — that  is  to  say,  sugars  strongly  crys¬ 
tallized  and  freed  from  molasses,  but  of  a  yellow  or  red  shade,  was 
the  true  cause  of  these  qualities ;  and  in  preserving  to  the  manufac¬ 
tured  sugar  the  original  alkaline  character,  it  had  radically  destroyed 
the  nitrogenous  matter  which  tended  to  produce  fermentation. 
The  sugars  thus  purified  might  be  kept  in  the  warehouse  without 
alteration  ;  they  refined  well,  but  their  coloration  was  carried  into 
the  produce ;  and  notwithstanding  the  use  of  more  animal  charcoal 
to  decolorize  them,  they  produced  sugar  of  a  yellow  cast,  which  to 
the  eyes  of  ignorant  consumers,  and  these  are  by  far  the  larger 
number,  if  not  the  generality,  were  depreciated. 

The  washing  with  syrup,  which  in  the  refinery  completes  the 
bleaching  and  purification  of  the  loaves,  required  also  a  much 
greater  consumption  of  white  sugar  and  more  time  for  working. 

To  avoid  these  inconveniences  some  purely  speculative  workers 
have  carried  out  this  fact  or  illusion,  that  in  suppressing  the  boiling 
with  lime  the  syrups  colour  less,  and  that  in  sub  nitting  them  to 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR.  CANE. 


85 


new  apparatus  they  prevent  calcareous  incrustations.  Thus  not¬ 
withstanding  their  really  evident  vices,  these  syrups  can  be 
submitted  without  difficulty  to  a  crystalline  purification,  known 
by  the  name  of  “  cuite  en  grains.” 

Armed  with  these  methods,  the  pretended  inventors  have  based 
their  speculations  upon  them  :  they  have  conceived  the  double 
carbonatation,  the  turbid  defecation,  and  all  those  irregular 
modifications  of  known  agents  and  processes  which  alter  the  pro¬ 
ducts  and  substitute  for  the  real  some  fictitious  qualities,  which 
finally  conduce  to  the  results  which  we  have  noted.* 

The  refiners  who  at  a  former  period  were  the  promoters  and 
regulators  of  the  progress  of  the  sugar  industry  by  giving  for  a 
long  time  the  preference  to  the  products  of  the  alkaline  method, 
have  become  in  an  interest  perhaps  little  understood,  the  pro¬ 
moters  and  accomplices  of  a  vicious  method  of  manufacture. 

The  white  grainy  sugars,  despite  their  radical  vices,  have 
the  great  advantage  of  being  easily  worked,  which  alone  cap¬ 
tivates  the  affections  of  the  refiners.  Their  apparent  purity, 
judged  of  by  their  colour,  j  allows  of  their  being  used  without  the 


*  These  pretended  progressive  inventions  had  rise  in  Germany,  where 
they  are  carried  out  with  the  same  assurance,  the  same  ignorance,  the 
same  effrontery,  as  in  France.  There,  in  fact,  analyses  made  by  the  doctors 
have  been  shown,  which  establish  by  figures  that  the  “turbid  defecation” 
removes  half  of  the  impurities  of  the  juice,  and  thus  doubles  the  value  of  it. 
We  have  affirmed  from  the  results  of  the  most  exact  experiments  that  this 
process  only  eliminates  the  colouring  principle  ;  and  that  as  regards  the  salts 
and  the  nitrogenous  matters,  the  juice  is  inferior  to  the  produce  of  the 
common  alkaline  method.  On  which  side  does  the  truth  lie  F  Only  ulterior 
discussion  will  show. 

t  It  is  believed  that  the  manufacturers  of  white  grainy  sugar  employ 
against  the  refiners  the  same  subterfuge  which  the  latter  use  against  their 
customers — that  is  to  say,  they  give  them  a  blue  tint  which  produces  a 
fictitious  white  appearance,  without  which  their  impurity  would  be  shown 
by  the  yellow  cast.  It  is,  in  fact,  known  that  refiners  put  into  their  loaf 
coppers  some  ultramarine,  of  which  the  blue  colour,  combined  with  tho 
yellow  colour  of  the  impure  sugar,  produces  a  whiteness  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  complimentary  colours.  This  is,  saving  the  diffcrenco  of  the 


36 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


centrifugal  or  any  other  process  whatever,  either  for  washing  loaves 
or  as  raw  material  for  refining,  and  when  added  to  the  charge  in 
the  vacuum  pan,  they  raise  the  colour  of  the  concentrated  syrups, 
and  reduce  the  volume  of  the  low  products,  which  are,  as  we 
know,  the  most  radical  obstacle  to  the  working  of  a  large  quantity. 

Such  are  the  real  motives  which  have  induced  the  refiners  to 
accord  a  higher  value  to  the  impure  white  grainy  sugars  of 
commerce,  and  which  have  exclusively  encouraged  this  kind  of 
manufacture,  and  attributed  to  it  a  superiority,  which  is  veiy 
questionable. 

In  fact,  all  the  sugars  produced  by  these  new  methods  of  manu¬ 
facture  are  more  or  less  defective,  and  the  high  price  which  refiners 
.  give  for  them  is  very  often  the  result  of  an  illusion  or  of  erroneous 
calculation. 

Already  there  is  a  little  reaction  from  this  infatuation,  and  the 
difference  in  price  between  the  white  and  yellow  sugars,  which  has 
been  sometimes  as  much  as  15  to  18  francs  per  100  kilos,  has 
now  fallen  to  9  or  10,  at  which  it  now  regularly  stands ;  hut  if  the 
subject  is  thoroughly  ventilated,  the  white  grainy  sugars  will 
lose  the  favour  they  at  present  enjoy,  and  may  even  be  driven 
from  the  market  with  as  much  ardour  as  they  have  found  favour 
without  sufficient  reason. 

Already  less  importance  is  now  attached  to  the  colour  which  has 
served  as  the  basis  of  an  absurd  official  classification.  Sacchari- 
metrical  and  saline  analyses  have  commenced  the  work  of  the 
regeneration  of  the  trade  in  sugar,  and  when  new  light  is  thrown 
upon  the  question,  complete  justice  will  he  done  by  restoring  the 
industry  to  the  path,  which  it  never  ought  to  have  abandoned ; 


colouring  principle,  the  usual  method  of  our  laundresses,  who  correct  the 
yellow  tone  of  the  badly  washed  linen  with  cohalt-blue.  The  principle  is 
exactly  the  same  in  both  cases  ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  an  unheard  of  thing  that 
sensible  men  should  be  carried  away  by  routine  to  practise  such  methods 
to  give  a  purely  fictitious  character  to  a  commercial  product  of  the  first 
importance — an  article  of  food !  Should  not  the  consumer  oppose  this 
underhand  dealing  by  refusing  all  sugars  which,  dissolved  in  water, 
eave  a  blue  precipitate. 


Jan-.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


37 


by  a  return  to  the  alkaline  working  of  sugars,  which  will  keep 
well — i.  e .,  to  sugars  free  from  glucose  and  from  glucose  ferments. 

Doubtless  the  refiners  are  able  to  bring  about  this  renovation  of 
the  sugar  industry  by  proceeding  as  they  formerly  did  at  another 
period ;  that  is  to  say,  at  an  epoch  when  the  industry,  misusing 
the  vacuum  apparatus,  delivered  faulty  sugars,  of  which  the  defects 
were  immediately  shown  in  the  process  of  refining. 

The  existing  defects  are  of  the  same  order,  although  balanced  by 
certain  illusory  advantages  which  favour  more  or  less  the  desires  of 
the  refiner,  as  we  have  noted,  aud  facilitate  the  working  of  a 
large  quantity ;  but  the  quality  of  the  produce  is  certainly  dete¬ 
riorated,  as  is  proved  by  the  invariable  presence  of  glucose  in  the 
refined  sugar  of  commerce. 

The  discovery  of  glucose  and  its  quantity  is,  then,  of  great 
importance  from  our  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  it  will  enable  the 
refiner  to  enter  on  the  path  of  perfection  which  we  have  pointed 
out. 

To  attain  this  end  mark  the  course  that  must  be  taken — 

All  raw  sugar  white  or  other,  which  is  not  freely  alkaline,  should 
be  suspected,  and  if  experiment  shows  that  it  contains  glucose,  it 
should  be  subjected  to  precise  examination  to  determine  its  value. 
Thus,  if  the  sugar  has  an  acid  reaction,  and  if  its  glucose  analysis 
shows  the  presence  of  true  glucose,  and  not  of  its  derivatives,  it 
should  lose  the  place  which  its  colour  and  granular  crystals  have 
given  it,  and  submit  to  a  rebate. 

Such  a  sugar,  in  fact,  used  in  the  refinery  always  introduces 
not  only  glucose  ready  formed,  but  also  ferments  which  produce 
this  impurity;  it  thus  becomes  a  means  of  the  modification  of 
crystallizable  sugar,  which  it  is  sought  in  vain  to  combat  by  calcic 
alkalinity.  In  this  case,  in  truth,  when  the  analysis  only  shows 
in  the  sugar  in  question  some  thousandths  of  glucose,  it  is  not  on 
an  equivalent  quantity  that  rebate  shonld  properly  be  made,  but 
on  hundredths,  because  such  a  sugar  made  in  the  refinery  alters 
some  hundredths  of  good  sugar,  and  therefore  a  rebate  expressed  in 
hundredths  would  be  perfectly  legitimate  and  justifiable. 

Besides,  the  fault  of  this  sort  of  sugar  can  be  discovered  by  other 


38 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


indications.  Thus,  sugar  stored  in  large  samples,  as  in  bags,  if  not 
completely  dry,  undergoes  fermentation,  and  loses  its  free  granular 
state,  and  clots  together,  like  farina  in  the  heat  of  summer.  The 
sugar  also  contracts  a  characteristic  odour. 

In  submitting  this  sugar  to  what  we  have  termed  the  calcic 
proof,  it  gives  off  ammonia,  easily  recognised  by  the  smell.  In 
fact,  every  circumstance  connected  with  sugar  of  this  sort  shows 
the  evils  of  defective  manufacture  ;  that  is  to  say,  of  an  incomplete 
defecation,  which,  while  promoting  the  blanching  of  it,  leaves 
impurities  in  the  syrup  which  an  alkali  would  eliminate  or 
transform. 

We  submit  that  even  an  exaggerated  rebate,  based  on  the  pre¬ 
sence  of  glucose,  or  its  derivatives,  in  the  sugars  of  commerce, 
is  perfectly  just,  when  these  impurities  are  the  result  of  a 
vicious  system  of  manufacture,  and  it  is  evident  that  this  rebate, 
considered  as  a  fine,  would  have  for  its  aim  and  effect  the  turning 
of  the  sugar  manufacture  away  from  a  false  system,  which  has  been 
adopted  under  the  pretence  of  progress. 

Let  us  see  what  would  be  the  effect  of  this  on  the  sugars  of 
commerce,  and  consequently  on  the  sugar  industry. 

If  the  alkaline  process  again  takes  the  lead  in  our  sugar  factories, 
the  raw  sugars  will  recover  their  rank  according  to  quality,  and  it 
is  evident  that  this  return  to  true  principle  will  not  prevent  in  any 
degree  legitimate  improvement  which  may  be  sought  for  from  the 
carbonic  decoloration,  animal  charcoal,  or  the  centrifugal,  from 
perfected  apparatus  and  from  all  the  processes  of  purification  which 
have  for  their  aim  the  delivery  to  the  refiner  of  the  purest  and 
whitest  sugar  possible. 

In  these  conditions  sugars  containing  no  glucose,  and  freely 
alkaline,  may  be  warehoused  without  the  fear  of  any  alteration  or 
fermentation  ;  they  would  not  afford  to  the  refiner  any  pretext  for 
a  recognized  allowance,  whilst  they  would  be  free  from  the  evils 
which  at  present  affect  the  working  and  the  produce  of  refineries. 

In  such  conditions,  and  with  such  raw  material,  the  refiners 
would  be  able,  as  advantageously  as  the  makers,  to  adopt  the 
alkaline  method,  and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  this  process,  which  is 


Jan.  1,  1870 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


39 


eminently  preservative  of  the  sugar,  and  which  cannot  be  carried 
out  while  the  present  system  prevails. 

In  fact,  the  glucose  alteration  being  caused  by  the  impurity  of 
the  raw  material,  begins  to  appear  in  the  first  process  of  the 
refinery — i.e.,  in  the  melting,  and  is  invariably  developed  during 
all  the  subsequent  processes ;  if,  to  combat  this  evil,  the  refiners 
have  recourse  to  the  calcic  alkalinity,  then  from  the  clarification 
downwards,  they  transform  the  normal  glucose  into  its  derivatives  > 
producing  in  it  the  known  coloured  derivative,  and  this  mode  of 
working  by  colouring  the  boiling  syrup,  annuls  the  benefit  expected 
from  the  introduction  of  white  grainy  or  centrifugal  sugars  into 
the  pan. 

The  refiners,  then,  are  obliged,  in  view  of  their  mode  of 
working,  to  take  account  in  their  offers,  both  of  the  pre-existing 
glucose  and  of  the  glucose  ferments.  This  is  the  least  of  the  evils 
in  the  present  state  of  the  question,  and  when  they  use  the  lime  to 
neutralize,  it  is  only  in  working  low  produce,  and  with  the  single 
aim  of  combating  the  frothy  fermentation. 

By  only  one  means  can  the  refining  industry  overcome  this 
difficulty,  and  that  is  the  return  to  the  alkaline  method  in  the 
sugar  factory,  when  the  raw  material  being  delivered  free  from 
glucose,  a  similar  mode  of  working  may  be  pursued  in  the  refinery. 

Then  and  then  only  refined  sugars  can  be  delivered  to  the  con¬ 
sumer  free  from  glucose,  and  then  perhaps,  also,  it  may  be 
demanded  of  the  refiners  that  they  cease  to  apply  to  the  sugar 
which  we  eat,  the  factitious  process  of  bleaching,  which  the  laun¬ 
dress  applies  to  our  linen. 


The  latest  news  from  the  colonial  sugar  countries  is  generally 
favourable  both  as  regards  the  present  and  the  coming  crops.  In 
Mauritius  rain  is  required  for  the  growing  canes,  but  the  hot 
dry  weather  has  been  favourable  for  the  cutting  of  the  present 
season’s  crop,  which  is  still  estimated  to  yield  125  to  130  thousand 
tons,  of  which  it  is  expected  that  50  thousand  tons  will  be  shipped 
for  Europe,  an  equal  quantity  for  Australia,  and  the  remainder  to 
India, — LickVs  Monthly  Circular , 


40 


THE  STJGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


ON  SULPHITE  OF  PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME,  THE  NEW 
DISINFECTANT  AND  MANURE. 

By  De.  B.  Wilhelm  Geeland, 


Although  the  number  of  disinfectants  is  limited,  the  choice  of  a 
suitable  one  is  difficult,  as  they  all  have  some  property  which 
makes  their  use  inconvenient.  The  most  effective  is  Chlorine,  but, 
being  poisonous  and  destructive,  it  must  be  rejected  in  important 
cases.  Carbolic  acid  is  well  known  as  an  antiseptic ;  however,  it 
deodorizes  only  by  substituting  its  own  strong  smell.  The  metallic 
Balts  and  the  Permanganates  are  in  many  instances  very  valuable ; 
their  disinfecting  action  is,  however,  limited  to  those  substances 
with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact ;  but  as  they  stain  or 
destroy  tissues,  or  other  organic  matter,  and  are  expensive  and 
poisonous,  their  use  is  restricted.  Of  greater  importance  is  Sul¬ 
phurous  acid.  Even  small  quantities  have  a  surprising  effect,  and 
it  is  therefore  used  by  several  trades.  Its  application  is  easy,  when 
it  can  be  made  by  burning  Sulphur  at  the  place  where  it  is  wanted ; 
but  it  is  a  highly  irritating  gas,  even  when  mixed  in  minute  pro¬ 
portion  with  the  air,  and  rapidly  tarnishes  metallic  surfaces,  so 
that  we  can  neither  use  it  in  our  dwellings  or  stables.  The 
aqueous  solution  of  Sulphurous  acid  has  not  many  advantages  over 
the  gas;  its  preparation  is  troublesome,  its  smell  very  strong, 
although  containing  but  a  few  per  cent.,  and  it  is  rapidly  affected 
by  the  air.  The  Sulphites  are  still  more  susceptible  to  this ;  more¬ 
over,  their  disinfecting  power  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
acid ;  in  fact,  I  have  repeatedly  observed,  that  when  mixed  with 
putrid  matter  they  accelerated  the  decomposition,  which  was  soon 
accompanied  by  an  abundant  generation  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 
With  these  considerations  I  undertook  an  investigation  of  Sulphu¬ 
rous  acid,  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  suitable  combination,  and  dis¬ 
covered  a  series  of  compounds' of  this  acid  with  tribasic  Phosphate 
of  Lime,  which  are  possessed^  properties  that  are  certain  to  make 
them  interesting  and  important. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


41 


Solution  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  in  Sulphurous  Acid. —  An 
aqueous  solution  of  Sulphurous  acid  dissolves  tribasic  Phosphate  of 
Lime,  in  whatever  state  it  may  be.  If  the  gas  is  passed  through 
water  holding  an  excess  of  precipitated  Phosphate  of  Lime  in 
suspension,  a  solution  of  1*3  sp.  gr.  is  obtained.  According  to  the 
analysis,  it  contains  for  one  equivalent  tribasic  Phosphate  of  Lime, 
six  equivalents  Sulphurous  acid,  as  the  comparison  between  the 
numbers  found  and  those  calculated  from  that  formula  will 
show  : — 


Analysis  of  the  Solution  of  The  formula,  3  Ca  0,  P05,  G  S  Ch, 
1-300  Sp.  Gr.  requires: — 

1,000  c.  c.  contain  : — 


Sulphurous  acid  . . 
Sulphuric  acid  . . 

218-38  Grms. 
0-70  „ 

....  6  S  02 

•  •  •  • 

. .  192  . . 

•  •  •  • 

224-45 

Phosphoric  acid  .  . 

8289 

>> 

....  P  05 

..  71-4.. 

82*89 

Lime . 

101-79 

>> 

....  3  CaO 

. .  84  . . 

98-20 

403-76 

f) 

•  •  •  t 

347-4  .. 

405-54 

Sulphurous  acid  also  dissolves  bone  ash,  but  it  acts  slower  than 
in  the  former  experiment,  nor  have  I  yet  succeeded  in  preparing  a 
solution  of  such  great  density.  The  strongest  solution  obtained 
from  bone  ash  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1-1708,  and  this  liquor 
contained,  in  1,000  c.  c.  :  — 


Sulphurous  acid . 

Sulphuric  acid  . 

gnns. 

Phosphoric  acid . 

>» 

Magnesia  . 

n 

Lime . 

)) 

251-72 


The  formula  3  Ca  O,  P  05,  6  S  03,  requires  for  47-42  Phosphoric 
acid : — 


42 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870 


Sulphurous  acid .  127-50 

Phosphoric  acid .  47*42 

Lime .  55-78 

- 230-70 

Excess  of  Lime  of  the  analysis .  3-91 

„  IMagnesia  ,,  .  2-79 

These  two  require  Sulphurous  acid  .  8-73 

Excess  of  Sulphurous  acid  found  .  5-58 

251-71 


The  liquor  contains  Lime  and  Phosphoric  acid  in  nearly  the  same 
proportion  as  the  hone  ash,  hut  considerably  more  IMagnesia ;  in 
fact,  the  Sulphurous  acid  has  dissolved  all  the  IMagnesia  of  the 
hone  ash,  which  was  left  in  excess  in  the  solution. 

The  proportion  of  Sulphurous  acid  in  these  liquors  varies  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  strength.  Those,  for  instance,  of  1  "060  sp.  gr.,  contain 
5  equivalents  Sulphurous  acid  for  1  equivalent  Phosphate  of  Lime, 
and  in  still  weaker  solutions  we  find  this  proportion  reduced  to 
4  to  1. 

These  liquors  have  the  smell  and  taste  of  Sulphurous  acid, 
hut  to  a  considerably  less  extent  than  aqueous  solutions  of  the 
gas  with  the  same  amount ;  nor  do  they  lose  it  so  readily,  and 
contain  a  much  greater  quantity.  As  the  Sulphurous  acid  has  not 
lost  its  disinfecting  power  in  these  solutions,  they  are  likely  to 
prove  of  great  value.  They  give  remarkable  reactions,  hut  most 
of  them  being  of  purely  scientific  interest,  we  will  omit  them  here, 
particularly  as  they  are  described  in  other  places.  The  following, 
however,  is  of  greater  importance,  and  of  more  general  interest : — 

When  the  solution  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  in  Sulphurous  acid  is 
boiled,  a  precipitate  is  formed,  and  the  latter  escapes  as  gas.  This 
decomposition  requires  long-continued  boiling,  considerably  more 
than  an  aqueous  solution  of  Sulphurous  acid  would  need,  to  deprive 
it  of  the  gas.  The  precipitate  is  white,  crystalline,  and  dissolves 
under  the  microscope  into  hexagonal  crystals,  showing  the  faces  of 
the  column  and  the  pyramid. 


Jak.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


43 


The  analysis  of  the  precipitate  dried  over  sulphuric  acid  gave 
the  following  numbers : — 


Sulphurous  acid .  15-61 

Sulphuric  acid . 0*23 

Phosphoric  acid .  34-48 

Lime  . . . .  39 ’89 

Water .  9*09 


99*30 


These  agree  with  the  formula,  3  Ca  0,  P  05,  S  02,  2  H  0,  which 


requires — 

Sulphurous  acid . 15-58 

Phosphoric  acid  .  34*76 

Lime  . » . . .  40-89 

Water .  8*77 


100-00 


The  substance  is,  consequently,  Sulphite  of  Phosphate  of  Lime. 
It  distinguishes  itself  from  all  other  Sulphites  by  its  stability,  and 
is  a  white  powder  free  from  smell  and  taste,  does  not  change  in 
any  way  in  either  wet  or  dry  air,  or  in  the  steam  bath.  After 
having  been  heated  for  three  hours  in  an  air  bath  to  130°  C.,  it  had 
lost  0*64  per  cent,  of  water,  whilst  the  amount  of  Sulphurous  acid 
remained  the  same  as  before.  The  water  is  held  strongly,  and 
cannot  be  expelled  except  by  a  higher  temperature,  when  at  the 
same  time  a  deeper  going  decomposition  takes  place,  in  consequence 
of  which  fumes  of  Sulphuric  acid,  metallic  Sulphur,  and  Sulphurous 
acid,  are  given  off  with  water ;  but  the  residuo  contains  Sulphur, 
as  Sulphate  and  Sulphide,  even  after  having  been  heated  to  redness. 

This  Sulphite  is  insoluble  in  cold  water.  Long-continued 
boiling  under  exclusion  of  air  causes  a  slight  decomposition,  and 
the  water  contains  Phosphoric  acid  in  veiy  small  proportion 
(according  to  my  estimation,  0-02  per  cent.) 


44 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


Strong  mineral  acids  decompose  the  compounds  under  effer¬ 
vescence  of  Sulphurous  acid.  Oxalic  acid  acts  hut  very  slowly  on 
it,  even  when  boiled.  Acetic  acid  has  scarcely  any  effect  upon  it ; 
assisted  by  heat  and  the  oxidizing  effect  of  air,  it  dissolves  it 
gradually. 

Chlorine  gas  is  readily  absorbed  by  the  dry  powder,  Sulphurous 
acid  is  oxidized,  but  no  Sulphuric  acid  is  formed,  and  only  small 
quantities  of  Phosphate  are  rendered  soluble.  Dilute  Iodine  solu¬ 
tion  is  instantaneously  discoloured  by  the  new  compound,  and  the 
process  is  terminated  when  it  is  completely  dissolved ;  a  further 
addition  of  Iodine  produces  a  permanent  color.  This  affords  an 
accurate  and  convenient  mode  of  testing  the  amount  of  Sulphurous 
acid.  The  decomposition  takes  place  according  to  the  formula, 

3  Ca  0,  P  05,  S  02,  2  H  0  4-1  =  Ca  0,  2  H  0,  P  05  -j- Ca  0,  S  03 4-Ca  I. 

The  Sulphite  of  Phosphate  of  Lime,  although  it  perfectly  resists 
the  atmosphere,  is  speedily  oxidized  when  buried  in  the  earth. 
The  following  experiment  explains  the  process  undergone : — A 
layer  of  the  compound,  l^-in.  thick,  was  placed  in  a  heavy  clay 
soil  (this  was  ascertained  to  be  free  from  Lime  and  Phosphoric  acid 
soluble  in  dilute  Hydrochloric  acid),  covered  with  the  same,  and 
well  beaten  down.  This  sample  was  exhumed  after  two  months 
(in  October),  and  a  portion  with  as  little  soil  as  possible  submitted 
to  analysis  ;  100  parts  were  found  to  contain  : — 


Sulphuric  acid .  18-59 

Phosphoric  acid  .  24‘58 

Lime  . 33-66 


Sulphurous  acid  was  not  present.  The  Sulphite  was  oxidized,  and 
this  will  have  taken  place  according  to  the  formula, 

3  Ca  0,  P  06,  S  02,  2  H  0  4-  0  =  2  Ca  0,  H  0,  P  05  4-  Ca  0,  S  03 + HO. 

The  original  substance  contained,  according  to  analysis  (see  p.  41), 
34‘5  per  cent.  Phosphoric  acid,  and  15-8  per  cent.  Sulphurous  acid, 
which  by  oxidation  yields  19*75  per  cent.  Sulphuric  acid.  The 
exhumed  substance  ought,  according  to  this  proportion,  to  contain 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CAHE. 


45 


for  tlie  quantity  of  Phosphoric  acid  found,  namely,  24*58,  14  per 
cent,  of  Sulphuric  acid;  hut  the  analysis  shows  18*59  per  cent. : 
that  is  an  excess  of  41-  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  the  Phosphate  has  been  dissolved  at  a  quicker  rate  than 
the  Sulphate  of  Lime.  Calculating  from  the  quantities  of  acids  of 
the  last  analysis,  the  quantity  of  Lime  which  they  require,  we  find, 

Per  cent. 

Lime. 

For  18*59  Sulphuric  acid  as  Ca  0,  S  03 .  13*01 

And  for  24*58  Phosphoric  acid  as  2  Ca  0,  P  05  19*28 

Total  .  32*29 


But  the  exhumed  sample  really  contained  33*66  per  cent.  Lime,  or 
1*37  per  cent.  more.  Such  an  excess  is  to  be  expected  when  we 
consider  the  tendency  of  dibasic  Phosphate  of  Lime  to  undergo  a 
decomposition  under  the  influence  of  water,  by  which  a  compound 
containing  more  Lime  is  left  undissolved. 

The  Sulphite  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  will  therefore  act  when  mixed 
with  the  soil,  like  a  soluble  Phosphate,  and  has  the  advantage  over 
the  latter  of  containing  a  higher  percentage  of  Phosphoric  acid,  and 
of  becoming  soluble  by  degrees,  so  that  floods  and  heavy  rains  are 
not  likely  to  wash  it  off  the  land. 

The  new  compound  has  the  property  of  absorbing  Ammonia  when 
it  is  mixed  with  air,  and  this  is  probably  of  great  importance  for 
its  functions  as  a  disinfectant,  as  will  be  explained  presently.  It 
appears,  however,  that  as  ammonia  is  absorbed,  the  equivalent  of 
Sulphurous  acid  becomes  oxidized,  and  forms  Sulphuric  acid.  A 
sample  was  placed  under  a  loose  shade  beside  a  dish  with  water, 
and  pieces  of  Carbonate  of  Ammonia,  for  four  weeks,  and  subse¬ 
quently  for  two  days  over  Sulphuric  acid.  It  was  then  found  to 
contain  :  — 

Per  cent. 


Lime  .  39*08 

Sulphurous  acid .  2*50 

Ammonia . . . . .  , ,  ,  5*60 

n 


46 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


The  Sulphite  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  possesses  antiseptic  and  dis¬ 
infecting  powers  to  a  remarkable  extent.  When  applied  to  putrid 
matter  it  will,  in  all  probability,  begin  its  action  by  absorbing  the 
free  Ammonia,  and  this  is  of  importance,  as  the  Ammonia,  a  product 
of  putridity,  greatly  accelerates  the  same,  and,  being  a  highly 
volatile  substance,  will  carry  off  other  products  of  decay,  which  by 
themselves  would  not  volatilize,  or  only  sparingly.  The  new 
Sulphite  goes  further  in  its  action :  it  arrests  decay,  and  the  worst 
•  smell  will  soon  be  greatly  diminished  and  changed,  or  altogether 
removed.  The  most  offensive  putrid  matter  will  by  this  means  be 
rendered  innocuous.  The  process  by  which  this  disinfection  is 
accomplished  is  not  yet  sufficiently  ascertained,  but  I  have  con¬ 
vinced  myself  that  the  larger  the  mass  of  matter,  and  the  more 
advanced  in  putridity,  and  the  warmer  the  temperature,  the 
quicker  and  the  more  perfect  is  the  action  of  the  Sulphite.  The 
Sulphurous  acid  becomes  oxidized,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  Ozone 
is  formed  at  the  same  time.  Nitric  acid  is  found  in  every 
instance.  It  is  astonishing  how  well  sometimes  this  powder  acts 
in  disinfecting  putrid  matter  when  at  a  distance  from  it.  For  hot 
climates  this  disinfectant  will  prove  of  great  benefit,  and  after 
having  served  its  purpose,  the  resulting  mixture  of  the  same  with 
organic  matter  will  be  a  valuable  manure. 

My  new  Sulphite  is  of  great  value  for  stables  and  shippons 

i 

When  regularly  strewn  over  the  floor,  a  small  quantity  will  be 
sufficient  to  remove  the  ammoniacal  smell  so  peculiar  to  these 
localities.  The  beneficial  effect  of  pure  air  upon  health  is  gener¬ 
ally  acknowledged;  how,  then,  can  we  expect  domestic  animals  to 
thrive  in  stables  where  the  air  is  often  contaminated  with  Ammonia 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  rudest  tests  will  show  its  presence  ? 
The  regular  application  of  this  disinfectant  is  consequently  of  a 
threefold  advantage  to  the  farmer :  it  keeps  the  air  in  the  stable 
pure,  it  enriches  the  dung  with  Phosphoric  acid  in  a  soluble  state, 
and  with  Ammonia,  W'hich  otherwise  would  be  lost.  The  Sulphite 
will  save  more  Ammonia  than  it  is  able  to  absorb,  as,  by  preventing 
the  decomposition  of  the  dung,  it  prevents  the  formation  of 
Ammonia,*  and  leaves  the  organic  substances  containing  Nitrogen 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


47 


THE  SUGAR,  CANE. 


intact,  until  the  clung  is  brought  on  the  land.  Since  the  Peruvian 
guano  fields  are  approaching  exhaustion,  the  value  of  Ammonia  is 
increasing,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  utilize  that  which 
we  have  at  our  doors,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  waste,  and  vitiato 
the  atmosphere.  It  would  he  advisable  to  keep  the  dung  under 
roof,  so  that  the  rain  cannot  wash  off  the  most  valuable  consti¬ 
tuents. 

The  Sulphite  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  combines  with  its  disinfecting 
power  properties  which  recommend  it  for  general  use.  It  is  a  nice 
white  powder,  inodorous  and  tasteless,  staining  nothing,  it  easily 
dusts  off  garments,  carpets,  &c.  It  does  not  affect  the  most  delicate 
colour  or  tarnish  metals,  and  is  perfectly  harmless  to  animal  life. 
Finally,  it  is  a  definite  chemical  compound,  and  therefore  of  regular 
composition. 

These  properties  are  also  likely  to  recommend  it  for  trial  in 
Therapeutics. 

All  attempts  to  prepare  a  compound  of  Phosphate  of  Lime  with 
two  equivalents  of  Sulphurous  acid  have  failed.  The  investigation 
of  this  subject  is  still  occupying  me,  bnt  as  the  described  compounds 
of  Sulphurous  Acid  and  Phosphate  of  Lime  are  of  great  scientific 
interest,  and  arc  likely  to  become  of  importance  for  agricultural 
and  sanitary  purposes,  particularly  since  they  are  now  articles  of 
commerce,  I  give  the  results  so  far  obtained  to  the  readers  of  “  The 
Sugar  Cane.” 

Macclesfield ,  December ,  1869, 


THE  CONCRETOR  IN  AUSTRALIA. 


We  have  been  favoured  with  the  perusal  of  a  letter  from  Dr.  Nield 
of  New  South  Wales,  giving  an  account  of  the  trial  of  (we 
believe)  the  first  Concretor  erected  in  any  part  of  Australia. 
Whilst  the  letter  shows  that  there  arc  great  difficulties  to  be  over¬ 
come  in  the  introduction  of  new  apparatus  into  a  comparatively 
new  country,  the  results  so  far  are  of  a  decidedly  encouraging 


48 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


character.  By  permission  we  reproduce  the  letter  in  our  pages, 
being  sure  it  will  interest  many  of  our  readers. 


New  South  Wales, 

Port  Macquarie, 

October  4,  1869. 

Hear  Sirs, 

I  need  not  trouble  you  with  a  very  long  letter  this  month,  but 
must  be  content  to  report  progress.  We,  or  rather  I,  have  finished 
erecting  the  Concretor,  the  brickwork  of  the  furnace  being  our 
hete  noire  ;  and  have  had  three  small  trials,  conducted  according  to 
the  printed  instructions  and  Mr.  Fryer’s  most  admirable  hints. 
None  of  us  who  worked  the  Concretor  had  ever  made  a  grain  of 
sugar  before,  and  I  must  own  to  a  sense  of  temerity  in  venturing 
to  use  so  beautiful  and  admirable,  so  complex,  yet  so  simple,  an 
apparatus.  But  we  were  careful,  and  had  no  accident.  The  brick¬ 
work  was  not  dry,  our  fuel  not  good,  the  trays,  especially  the 
wrought-iron  ones,  were  loaded  with  rust  and  dirt,  which  we  could 
not  get  off  at  first.  Everything  was  dirty,  cylinder  full  of  dust, 
our  hot  air  did  not  reach  230°,  other  end  not  100°,  the  defecation 
in  the  clarifiers  was  most  imperfect,  and  there  was  more  or  less  of 
salt  water  in  the  pipes  (we  are  compelled  to  use  salt  water  for  our 
boiler).  We  did  not  expect  any  result  but  a  mess  ;  yet,  despite  all 
this,  in  two  hours  after  being  discharged,  the  concentrated  material — 
I  cannot  call  it  syrup,  it  was  so  poorly  cooked — began  to  granulate, 
and  next  morning  (we  had  to  finish  it  by  lantern  light)  there  was 
a  good  body  of  sugar.  This  was  centrifugated  and  liquored  two 
days  afterwards,  and  yielded  a  very  light  grey  sugar — grey  from 
being  tinged  by  the  rust,  yet  of  a  nice  sweet  taste.  I  should  have 
previously  stated  that  the  cane  crushed  had  lain  long  on  the 
ground,  blown  down,  but  not  broken  off,  and  that  the  juice 
marked  only  8£  to  9°  Baume.  The  mill  expresses  60  and  62£  per 
cent,  of  juice.  We  felt — and  our  better  experienced  visitors 
expressed — that  our  result  was  a  great  success.  Two  days  after 
our  first  crushing  we  tried  a  second ;  but  our  colonial  steam  boiler 
could  only  give  us  10  to  17  or  18  lbs.  of  steam,  Hence  the  boiling 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


49 


quite  overran  the  crushing,  and  we  had  to  stop — not,  however,  till  wc 
had  turned  out  many  gallons  of  rich  syrup,  which  began  to  crystal¬ 
lize  almost  immediately.  Our  boiling  had  been  much  better,  but 
fitful,  owing  to  a  furious  Nor’-wester,  and  our  heat  had  risen  to 
280°  and  130°.  We  ended  our  day  at  the  centrifugal  as  just 
named.  On  our  third  boiling  things  went  better  than  ever.  The 
juice  was  in  a  rich  amber  foam  from  end  to  end  of  trays,  yet  no 
burning;  the  heat  was  330°  to  150°,  the  discharge  was  going  on 
continuously,  and  good-sized  crystals  formed  in  the  shoot  in  the 
cylinder.  Wc,  however,  ran  the  sugar  and  syrup  into  coolers  to 
crystallize  fully.  We  must  centrifugal  it  when  our  boiler  funnel 
has  been  put  up  again ;  we  have  taken  it  down  to  add  1 2  feet  to  it. 

I  am  quite  satisfied  with  the  Concretor  and  your  beautiful 
machinery ;  both  will  do  all  promised  for  them,  provided  I  have  a 
proper  supply  of  steam,  and  this  I  am  hastening  to  get.  I  consider 
we  arc  quite  successful,  hut  shall  use  coolers  for  the  present,  till 
our  sugar  runs  so  freely  in  the  side  shoot  as  to  tempt  us  to  put  it 
at  once  in  the  centrifugal. 

One  of  my  visitors  is  the  manager  for  the  Sydney  Sugar  Company 
of  their  large  Concretor  (about  being  erected)  on  the  Macleay.  He 
was  well  satisfied — more  so,  by  far,  than  myself — and  declared  that 
what  he  had  seen  us  novices  accomplish  had  taken  a  load  of 
anxiety  from  his  mind.  I  can  assure  you  it  has  marvellously 
lightened  my  anxiety  also.  I  believed  in  the  Concretor,  yet,  when 
I  found  myself  nearly  alone  in  standing  up  for  it,  and  was  pitied 
for  my  blindness,  sneered  at  for  my  folly,  censured  for  my  rash¬ 
ness,  and  laughed  at  by  ignorance — when  professed  experts  pre¬ 
dicted  my  utter  ruin,  and  even  kindly  acquaintances  could  give  me 
no  more  encouragement  than  a  cool  “hope  you  will  succeed,”  or  a 
silent  disbelief  expressed  by  the  eyes — I  must  confess  to  having 
had  many  an  anxious  hour,  and  no  little  burden  to  hear.  But,  as 
“nothing  succeeds  like  success,”  smiles  and  congratulations  are 
being  exchanged  for  sneers  and  pity  and  “  hopes,”  and  my  energies 
are  being  restrung  to  complete  my  works,  and  get  through  my 
work  of  this  season. 

Sincerely  yours, 

JOj£N  C.  NIELD. 


50 


THE  SUGAR  CAKE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


MEMORIAL  OK  THE  SUGAR  DUTIES. 


It  appears  that  a  memorial  has  been  drawn  up  in  Antigua,  for 
presentation  to  the  Home  Authorities,  asking  in  the  first  place  for  a 
reduction  of  the  duties  on  sugar  to  one  uniform  rate  of  4s.  8d.  per 
cwt.  Antigua  is  not  the  place  in  which  such  a  memorial  might 
he  expected  to  originate,  and  it  appears,  from  voluminous  corre¬ 
spondence  in  the  island  newspapers,  that  the  planters  there  are 
by  no  means  of  one  accord  on  the  question — as  will  be  seen  by  an 
extract  from  one  of  the  letters  on  the  subject : — 

“I  trust  the  planters  of  Antigua  will  pause  before  they  sign 
a  memorial,  the  effect  of  which,  if  granted,  will  be  to  hold 
out  a  heavy  premium  to  the  refined  sugar  of  Cuba,  the  vacuum 
pan  sugar  of  Dcmerara,  and  the  beet-root  sugar  of  France 
and  Germany,  by  taxing  these  at  the  same  duty  as  their  own 
muscavado.  The  Committee  decided  that  the  duty  should  be  levied 
as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  amount  of  extractable  saccharine  matter 
in  the  same  way  that  the  customs  charge  duty  on  rum — according  to 
the  quantity  of  alcohol  it  contains.  AY ould  the  writer  of  the  memo¬ 
rial  propose  that  our  Leeward  Island  rum  of  low  proof  should  pay  the 
same  duty  per  gallon  as  the  high  proof  rum  of  Demerara  and 
Jamaica? — I  trow  not.  Then  why  should  he  seek  to  tax  pure 
saccharine  at  the  same  duty  as  our  sugars,  containing  as  they  do, 
a  large  proportion  of  matter,  not  saccharine  ? 

“  The  argument  that  the  differential  duties  afford  a  premium  for 
making  bad  sugar,  is  altogether  fallacious.  AYhat  it  does  do ,  is  to 
allow  the  planter  of  small  means  who  cannot  afford  to  erect  a 
refinery,  or  a  vacuum  pan,  to  enter  the  market  on  as  nearly  as 
possible  equal  terms  with  his  richer  competitor.  Kor  is  the  argu¬ 
ment  comparing  tea  with  sugar  a  happier  one,  as  every  one  knows, 
or  ought  to  know,  that  common  congou,  at  10d.,  is  as  pure  tea  as 
souchong  or  pekoe,  at  Is.  6d.  or  2s.,  and,  unlike  muscavado  sugar,  is 
not  combined  with  any  foreign  matter. 

u  The  statement  in  the  memorial  as  to  the  mode  of  assessing  the 
duty,  even  if  true,  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  principle  of  a 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CAKE. 


51 


scale  of  duties.  The  science  of  the  present  day  is  quite  capable  of 
detecting  the  amount  of  saccharine  matter  in  any  sample  of  sugar, 
and  I  cannot  imagine,  if  the  present  mode  of  assessing  duties  is 
so  “vicious”  as  is  described,  how  men  of  intelligence,  as  our 
merchants  and  brokers  undoubtedly  arc,  can  submit  to  it.  However, 
as  I  have  said,  this  can  in  no  way  affect  the  principle,  which  is  to 
tax  the  saccharine  and  not  the  matter  with  which  it  is  combined  in 
raw  sugars. 

“If  the  writer  would  separate  his  application  for  equalization,  and 
apply  only  for  reduction  or  abolition,  he  would  have,  I  believe,  the 
unanimous  approval  not  only  of  this,  but  of  every  other  West  India 
sugar-producing  colony.” 

“I  am,  sir, 

“  Yours  respectfully, 

«  P.  BURNS.” 

In  some  of  the  replies  to  Mr.  Burns,  and  also  in  some  remarks  in 
a  Barbadoes  paper,  the  opinion  is  expressed  that,  if  equalization  of 
duties  would  be  detrimental  to  some  interests,  total  abolition  would 
be  much  more  so.  It  is  scarcely  needful  to  invoke  the  authority 
of  Political  Economy  to  confute  this  fallacy,  the  absurdity  of  which 
is  apparent.  With  neither  duties  nor  drawbacks,  no  one  interest 
could  possibly  have  any  fiscal  advantage  over  another ;  but  a  fixed 
duty  would  favour  the  foreign  refiner  at  the  expense  of  the  producer 
of  raw  material,  and  in  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  duty  ; 
thus,  at  a  fixed  duty  calculated  to  produce  the  same  revenue  as  the 
present  graduated  scale — say  10s.  per  cwt., — 10  cwts.  of  loaf  sugar 
would  pay  100s.,  or  10s.  for  each  cwt.  of  pure  sugar;  10  cwts.  of 
fine  Havanna  would  equally  pay  100s.,  and  as  9  cwts.  of  pure  sugar 
would  be  extracted  from  it,  the  duty  would  be  about  11s.  per  cwt. 
of  pure  sugar;  10  cwts.  of  Muscavado  would  also  pay  100s.,  this 
would  yield  8  cwts.  of  pure  sugar,  which  would  thus  pay  12s.  6d. 
per  cwt.  Manila,  Jaggery,  and  other  low  sugar  would  of  course 
pay  proportionately  more.  It  comes  then  to  this — that  on  ono 
uniform  rate  of  10s.  per  cwt.,  French  beet-root  sugar  made  into 
loaves  would  pay  10s.  per  cwt. ;  slave-grown  Havanna,  20s.  per 
ton  more  ;  and  the  produce  of  the  island  of  Antigua,  50s.  per  ton 


52 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


more.  Rut  the  buyer  would  simply  buy  the  cheapest  sugar  for  his 
money ;  the  beet-root  refiner  would  be  protected,  and  the  grower 
of  low  sugar  injured,  to  the  extent  of  the  difference ;  and  the 
ultimate  but  inevitable  effect  would  be,  that  the  Antiguan  planter 
would  have  to  sell  his  sugars  at  an  average  of  30s.  per  ton  less 
than  at  present,  a  tax  on  the  island  of  something  like  £20,000  per 
annum,  from  which  the  British  consumer  would  not  derive  the 
slightest  benefit,  but  which  would  be  paid  in  the  shape  of  higher 
prices,  mainly  to  foreign  refiners  and  producers  of  beet-root  sugar. 
The  principle  is  just  the  same  whether  the  fixed  duty  be  10s.  per 
cwt.  or  5s.  ;  and  supposing  Mr.  Lowe  could  be  induced  to  spare 
half  the  revenue  from  sugar,  and  fix  it  at  5s.,  the  result  would,  in 
each  case,  be  just  half  what  is  indicated  above. 

If,  instead  of  asking  for  the  reversal  of  the  policy  pursued  on 
the  sugar  duties  for  so  many  years, — a  policy  approved  by 
the  most  eminent  modern  statesmen  and  financiers — the  Antigua 
memorialists  had  petitioned  for  their  total  and  immediate 
repeal,  their  appeal  would  have  had  greater  weight.  All 
classes  interested  are  in  favour  of  this  solution  of  the  question ; 
with  freedom  of  trade  no  interest  would  be  protected  or  injured, 
and  without  giving  to  our  sugar  colonies  any  fiscal  advantage,  it 
would  greatly  promote  their  prosperity,  and  strengthen  the  ties 
which  bind  them  to  the  mother  country. 


STATE  OE  CUBA. 


According  to  a  correspondent  of  a  New  York  paper,  “the  civil 
war  in  Cuba  ’  ’  has  degenerated  into  a  savage  butchery. 

It  is  said  that  eight  thousand  men  are  about  to  be  sent  to 
replace  fourteen  thousand  Spanish  soldiers,  who  have  fallen 
through  the  casualties  of  war,  or  become  victims  of  yellow  fever 
and  cholera ;  and  that  the  same  fate  will  probably  befall  the  fresh 
reinforcements,  for,  according  to  the  latest  news  from  the  more 
important  points — as  the  isle  of  Satiago  de  Cuba,  for  instance — the 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


53 


yellow  fever  and  cholera  are  making  fearful  ravages.  The  Cubans, 
it  is  stated,  are  prepared  for  all  extremities,  rather  than  submit 
longer  to  the  yoke  of  Spain,  as  a  proof  of  which,  a  proclamation  of 
Cepcdes,  the  chief  of  the  insurgents,  is  cited,  to  the  effect  that,  in 
order  to  deprive  the  Spaniards  of  the  revenues  derived  from  sugar 
and  tobacco,  he  lias  ordered  the  destruction  of  the  plantations  of 
both  of  these.  The  writer  adds  that  in  proof  of  the  prevalence  of 
the  “fanaticism  of  independence,”  which  recalls  the  worst  periods 
of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  this  order  is  being  earned 
into  effect — that  the  most  beautiful  plantations  are  being  reduced 
to  ashes — and  that  very  shortly,  if  the  Cubans  arc  left  to  them¬ 
selves,  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  will  be  nothing  more  than  a  vast 
desert. 

This  account,  considering  its  source,  must  of  course  be  taken 
cum  grano  salis.  Nothing  is  less  likely  to  promote  the  popularity 
of  the  insurrection  amongst  the  influential  class  of  Cubans  than  the 
mode  of  warfare  above  described  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  taken  (if  the 
account  is  true)  as  a  proof  of  the  weakness  of  the  insurrection, 
rather  than  of  its  strength. 


From  the  Antigua  Times. 

Some  time  since  we  noticed  the  arrival  of  two  steam  ploughs  in 
the  island,  and  remarked  on  the  occurrence  as  a  proof  of  the 
progress  of  enterprise  in  Antigua.  Since  then  another  event 
has  occurred  which  we  think  bears  out  still  more  fully  what  we 
said  then.  We  allude  to  the  importation  by  “  Fryer’s  Concrete 
Company,  Limited,  of  their  fourth  Concretor.  This  machine  is, 
we  believe,  intended  for  the  Belviderc  estates,  and  will,  from  its 
size,  nearly  double  the  power  of  the  factory  there.  It  is  of  the 
largest  style,  with  all  the  recent  improvements ;  and  its  erection 
gives  proof,  if  any  were  wanting,  that  the  company  is  not  likely 
to  let  either  the  cultivation  of  its  own  estates  or  the  purchase  of 
canes  (of  the  benefit  of  which,  to  the  small  holder,  we  have 
before  spoken)  languish  for  want  of  a  judicious  expenditure. 


54 


THE  STJGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


PROSPECTS  IN  BARBADOES. 


Erom  a  Letter,  by  S.  T.  Hardy,  in  the  Reporter. — The  sugar- 
crop  of  1869  has  indeed  proved  woefully  short — considering  the 
acreage  under  canes,  (to  say  nothing  of  the  expense  of  its  preparation 
and  manuring),  and  I  suppose  it  has  been  the  worst  since  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  slavery  in  1834,  as  regards  the  money  realized  by  its  sale. 
In  hhds.,  putting  aside  small  packages,  the  exports  of  1869  are 
only  27,000  as  against  51,000  hhds.  the  previous  year;  in  fact, 
about  half  a  crop.  With  our  present  extended  system  of  planting, 
I  believe  there  are  35,000  acres  under  canes  every  crop — less  than 
50,000  hhds.  sugar,  annually  exported,  will  not  “pay”  at  the 
ordinary  price  of  sugar.  The  quality  of  Barbadoes  sugar,  in  such 
a  dry  season  as  the  last,  is  necessarily  inferior  to  that  produced 
from  canes  arrived  at  perfect  maturity.  We  have  found  the  quality 
of  this  year’s  shipments  worse  than  for  many  years — as  recent 
letters  from  the  principal  consignees  have  mentioned.  The  state 
of  the  English  and  American  markets  has,  fortunately,  enabled 
merchants  to  get  out  of  this  year’s  sugar  at  better  prices  than  they 
obtained  for  the  superior  crop  of  1867-8.  This  has  helped  us. 
Also  the  unusually  large  yield  of  molasses  has  found  a  very  good 
market  in  the  island  with  American  buyers. 

We  are  now  approaching  a  new  year  and  “the  next  crop.” 
It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  nature  of  the  growing  season  of 
1869.  I  did  hope  early  in  June,  when  the  country  was  looking 
well,  and  crops  starting  from  a  long  lethargy  began  to  grow 
vigorously,  that,  with  favourable  weather  to  the  end  of  the  year,  we 
might  find  50,000  hhds.  exported  in  1870.  After  so  many  hard 
knocks  from  the  repeated  spells  of  drought  since  then,  I  fear  it  is 
now  only  too  probable  we  are  in  for  another  short  crop  as  a  whole, 
though  I  expect  not  a  few  plantations  will  do  better  in  1870 
than  in  1869. 

As  a  community,  we  find  ourselves  now  so  much  the  poorer  as 
compared  with  our  position  a  year  ago,  that  another  short  crop  is 
a  serious  prospect ;  some  say  it  is  a  calamity  or  judgment*  Rather 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CAKE. 


55 


let  us  regard  it  as  a  timely  warning — “a  blessing  in  disguise.” 
Here  we  are  depending  too  much  on  one  precarious  and  most  uncer¬ 
tain  plant,  witli  a  swarming  and  increasing  population,  and  nature 

\ 

(so  to  say)  has  placed  us  in  a  position,  in  many  important  respects 
unrivalled,  for  attracting  a  goodly  share  of  the  trade  of  the  world 
passing  our  shores. 

There  is,  I  think,  too  great  imgortance  attached  to  land-owning 
here,  and,  (as  our  late  Governor  pointed  out  in  his  “  Blue  Books,”) 
a  struggle  for  possession  of  land  in  our  crowded  island  results  in 
the  giving  of  enormous  prices,  and  a  hand-to-mouth  existence, 
when  buyers  have  little  capital.  A  ‘  rise  in  price  ’  of  sugar 
increases  the  evil,  and  our  true  interests  seem  to  be  that  sugar 
should  remain  at  an  equable  and  moderate  value.  I  should  regret, 
therefore,  to  see  prices  rise  any  higher  than  the  average  of  tho 
present  year. 

Prom  Governor  Rawson’s  Address. — Ere  long,  Steamers  will 
be  established  on  all  the  main  lines  of  commercial  traffic  over  the 
face  of  the  globe.  Two  lines  now  touch  at  Barbadoes.  Two  other 
lines,  one  connecting  Kew  York  with  South  America,  the  other 
projected  to  connect  the  Dominion  of  Canada  with  British  Guiana, 
are  desirous  of  doing  so.  The  establishment  of  telegraphic  com¬ 
munication  with  Europe  and  North  America,  which  will  enable 
passing  vessels  in  the  Australian  and  South  American  trades  to 
receive  orders  here,  the  first  and  most  favourable  point  of  the  globe 
for  that  purpose,  will  open  a  new  and  vast  field  for  the  traffic  of 
Barbadoes. 


SORGHO  SUGAR. 

(From  tlie  American  Grocer.) 

Macon,  Ga.,  Kov.  17,  1869, 

Among  the  articles  on  exhibition  are  four  specimens  of  sugar 
made  from  the  sorgho  cane.  The  sugar  is  excellent.  It  ranges 
from  white  to  brown.  The  importance  of  this  matter  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  For  a  long  time  the  practicability  of  making 


56 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


sorgho  sugar  was  in  great  doubt,  and  even  after  this  was  deter¬ 
mined,  it  was  in  still  greater  doubt  whether  it  would  pay  to  do  it. 
These  matters  are  settled,  and  triumphantly  settled,  in  favour  of 
the  sugar. 

This  sugar  was  made  in  Atlanta  at  the  Sorgho  Works  of  Glenn 
and  Wright.  We  give  the  results  of  the  working  of  this  system 
of  sugar  making.  One  gallon  of  syrup  will  make  from  five  to 
seven  pounds  of  sugar,  and  leave  a  quart  of  excellent  syrup.  An 
acre  of  cane  will  give  a  hundred  gallons  of  syrup,  or  from  five  to 
seven  hundred  pounds  of  sugar,  and  one  hundred  quarts,  or  twenty- 
five  gallons  of  syrup.  The  sugar  is  worth  20  cents  per  pound,  or 
100  dols.  for  the  500  pounds.  The  syrup  left  is  worth  1  dol.  per 
gallon,  or  25  dols.  for  the  25  gallons.  Thus  125  dols.  per  acre 
gross  is  realizable  from  each  acre  of  cane. 

In  South-western  Georgia,  planters  have  on  the  same  quality  of 
land  made  more  money  on  their  sorgho  sugar  than  their  cotton. 

The  South  Carolina  State  Agricultural  Society  has  recommended 
the  making  of  this  sugar  by  this  plan  to  the  planters  of  the  South. 

As  the  cane  will  grow  all  over  the  State,  it  will  behove  all  of 
our  fanners  to  look  into  this  matter. 


NEW  PATENTS. — from  the  mechanics’  magazine. 


1486.  J.  H.  Johnson,  Lincoln’s  Inn-fields.  Treatment  of  Beet-root.  (A 
communication.)  Dated  May  14,  1869. 

The  object  is  to  provide  a  straining  or  filtering  surface  for  the  pressing 
cylinders  used  in  treating  beet-root,  which  shall  not  be  liable  to  become 
clogged  by  the  adhering  thereto,  or  the  accumulation  thereon,  of  the  solid  or 
tenuous  particles  of  the  pulp,  the  openings  being  at  all  times  perfectly 
permeable,  whilst  the  juice  itself  is  allowed  to  passed  through  them  in  a 
highly  pure  condition.  This  result  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  smooth 
metallic,  filtering,  or  straining  surface,  that  is  to  say,  a  surface  presenting 
no  rough  parts  to  which  the  pulp  can  attach  itself. — Patent  completed. 

1498.  F.  Kohn,  Robert-street,  Adelphi.  Extracting  juice  from  sugar.  (A 
communication.)  Dated  May  17,  1869. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


THE  SUGAR  CANE. 


57 


This  consists  in  carrying  out  the  whole  process  of  diffusion  in  one  singlo 
vessel  or  diffuser,  in  which  the  sugar  extraction  is  carried  on  continuously  by 
introducing  the  slices  of  cane,  beet-root,  or  other  plants  through  a  feeding 
apparatus  at  tho  bottom  of  the  vessel,  from  which  they  rise  slowly  and 
gradually  to  the  top,  while  tho  fresh  water  is  constantly  running  in  at  tho 
top  of  the  diffusion  vessel,  and  is  drawn  off  at  the  bottom  as  diffusion  juice, 
after  having  remained  in  contact  with  the  slices  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time. — Patent  completed. 

loll.  W.  R.  Lake,  Southampton-buildings.  Drying  sugar.  (A  com¬ 
munication.)  Dated  May  17,  1869. 

The  time  for  drying  sugar  loaves  in  the  ordinary  manner  is  from  eight  to 
twelve  days,  but  with  this  improved  apparatus  the  time  is  reduced  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  improvement  is  obtained  by  producing  complete  currents 
of  heated  air-  in  the  loaves  themselves.— Patent  abandoned, 


FOREIGN  PATENTS. — from  “la  sucrerie  indigene. ” 

84311.  M.  Haxon  a  Betiiune,  Tas  de  Calais.  Apparatus  for  heating  and 
evaporating  liquids. 

This  apparatus  is  composed  of  two  concentric  vases,  the  interior,  which  is 
open  at  the  top,  is  fitted  with  two  or  more  serpentines  for  tho  evaporation  of 
the  liquid.  The  second  vase,  which  is  closed  at  the  top,  envelopes  the  first 
on  all  sides,  and  receives  in  the  space  which  separates  them  the  vapour 
thrown  off  by  the  boiling  liquid.  This  vapoux*,  which  escapes  by  a  flue  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vase,  cannot  reach  this  opening  until  it  has  traversed  up 
and  down  five  compartments  into  which  the  space  between  the  two  vases  is 
divided.  Into  the  first  of  these  compartments  tho  wasto  steam  from  the 
steam  engine  may  also  be  turned. 

84731.  M.  M.  Jugl  et  Ivodl,  Austria.  Process  of  clarifying  and  purify* 
ing  sugar  in  the  moulds  or  other  receptacles  by  means  of  the  clearing  syrup  with  high 
pressure  either  of  air  or  water. 

The  moulds  for  the  loaves  are  placed  as  usual,  but  are  provided  with  a 
ledge  at  the  top, — the  base  of  the  cone — on  this  ledge  is  placed  a  covering 
which,  by  being  screwed  on  a  leathern  washer,  may  be  hermetically  closed. 
There  aro  two  holes  in  this  cover,  one  for  the  air  tap,  the  other  for  an 
Indian-rubber  tube,  which  conducts  tho  clarifying  syrup  to  tho  moidd  from 
a  reservoir  above  submitted  to  the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere.  Under  tho 
influence  of  this  pressure  the  passago  of  the  syrup  through  the  loaf  is  very 


58 


THE  SUGAR  CAKE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


rapid,  and  the  operation  of  clarifying  only  requires  six  hours  at  most.  To 
accelerate  the  process  of  draining  the  loaves,  for  the  ordinary  “  succettes,”  a 
current  of  compressed  air  from  a  reservoir  is  substituted — the  pressure  of 
aspiration.  By  a  peculiar  contrivance  the  air  reaches  the  mould  by  the  same 
passage  as  that  by  which  the  syrup  was  conveyed.  Considerable  pressure  may 
be  applied.  The  patent  includes  the  provision  of  a  steam-guage  and  a  safety 
valve. 


“The  Sugar  Industry  of  Java,”  by  J.  Millard,  Esq.,  will  be 
continued  in  our  next  Humber. 

The  Report  of  the  Commissioners  on  the  subject  of  Distillery 
Lees  in  British  Guiana  has  been  received,  with  thanks. — Ed.  S.  C. 


Stocks  of  Raw  Sugar  in  the  Chief  Markets  of  the  "World, 
IN  THOUSANDS  OF  TONS,  TO  OCTOBER  31. 


1869. 

1868. 

United  Kingdom  .... 

_  132  . 

.  .  .  .  148 

France . . 

_  66  . 

. . . .  83 

Holland . 

_  20  _ 

.  .  .  .  38 

Znllverein  . . 

_  21  . 

,  . .  .  30 

United  States  . 

.  .  .  .  101  .... 

.  .  .  .  55 

Cuba  ,  t  , . . 

_  28  .... 

. . . .  33 

Total  .  ,  . 

. 369 

387 

Consumption  in  Europe  and  United  States,  in  Thousands 


of  Tons,  for  year  ending  October  31. 


1868-9. 

1867-8. 

Europe . 

. . .  1255  _ 

....  1180 

United  States  .  . . 

410 _ 

. .  .  425 

1635  .... 

....  1605 

SUGAR  STATISTICS— GREAT  BRITAIN. 

To  18th  Dec.,  1869.  In  Thousands  of  Tons,  to  the  Nearest  Thousand. 


Jan.  1,  1870 


THE  SUGAR  CANE.  59 


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British  East  India 

Mauritius  . 

Cuba  . 

Porto  Rico,  &c.  .  . 
Manilla,  &c . 

Brazil . 

Beetroot,  &c . 

Total,  1869  . . 

Total,  1868  . . 

GO 


THE  SUGAR  CAKE. 


Jan.  1,  1870. 


STATE  AHD  PROSPECTS  OF  THE  SUGAR  MARKET. 

During  the  past  month  the  markets  have  been  firm  for  most 
descriptions  of  raw  sugar.  A  good  business  has  been  done,  and 
rather  higher  prices  have  been  paid  for  the  better  classes  of  goods. 
Refined  sugars  have  been  in  good  demand  at  former  rates. 

Notwithstanding  the  unprecedented  crop  of  beet-root  sugars — 
100,000  tons  above  that  of  1868 — and  the  probability  of  a  largely 
increased  supply  of  good  sugars  from  Mauritius,  considerable 
confidence  is  displayed,  and  a  healthy  tone  prevails. 

The  long  continuance  of  the  insurrection  in  Cuba,  the  source  of 
the  supply  of  so  large  a  proportion  of  good  sugars,  no  doubt  tends 
to  the  firmness  of  the  market  ,*  and  it  may  be  noted  that  although 
the  deliveries  in  the  United  Kingdom  to  the  middle  of  December 
do  not  exceed  those  of  1868,  yet  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  they 
are  considerably  in  excess.  The  stocks  of  refined  sugar,  as  wrell  as 
of  good  raw  are  much  reduced,  which  general  deficiency,  together 
with  increased  consumption,  may  fairly  be  set  against  any  over 
production  of  beet-root  sugars. 


Eg5gr  Communications  and  Advertisements  to  be  addressed  to  the 
Editor  of  “  The  Sugar  Cane,”  Galt  $  Co.,  Publishers ,  Manchester . 


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